It's not just the amount that counts: Balanced need-satisfaction also affects well-being

Sheldon, Kennon M.; Niemiec, Christopher P.

doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.331

Cited by 454Motivation and Self-Concept in SportsPsychological Well-being and Life SatisfactionHuman Behavior and Motivation

It's not just the amount that counts: Balanced need-satisfaction also affects well-being

Sheldon, Kennon M., Niemiec, Christopher P.·2006·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.331

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Abstract

The basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness have been found to have unique additive effects on psychological well-being (see E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan, 2000). In the present study, the authors extended these findings by examining whether the balance in the satisfaction of these 3 needs is also important. The results of 4 studies showed that people who experienced balanced need satisfaction reported higher well-being than those with the same sum score who reported greater variability in need satisfaction. This finding emerged for multiple measures of needs and adjustment and was independent of neuroticism. Moreover, results were obtained consistently across concurrent, prospective, daily diary, and observer-report study designs. Discussion focuses on the psychological meaning and functional implications of balanced need satisfaction.

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The degree to which people experience and express situation-relevant emotions, produce coping mechanisms matching the stressor, and experience balance in psychological need satisfaction accounts for incremental variance in social and psychological health beyond standard metrics.
“Because of this, it makes good sense that the degree to which people can experience and express emotions that are most relevant to a situation (Bonanno et al., 2004), produce coping mechanisms that match onto the stressor being confronted (Cheng, 2001), and experience a balance in their satisfaction of psychological needs (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006) account for incremental variance in social and”
From Psychological flexibility as a fundamental aspect of health (2010) · cites this paper as Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006

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Background
Integration of Social Identities in the Self: Toward a Cognitive-Developmental Model
Amiot, C. E., de la Sablonnière, R., Terry, D. J., & Smith, J. R. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868307304091 · Cited by 419 · see citing works
“Along those lines, Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) have recently relied on a balance score that represents the amount of coherence among three psychological needs (i.e., autonomy, competence, relatedness).”
Background
How Can Measures of Subjective Well-Being Be Used to Inform Public Policy?
Dolan, P., & White, M. P. (2007) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2007.00030.x · Cited by 416 · see citing works
“Although Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) recently examined the possibility that balance across different needs may be important, they did not specifically comment on the trade-offs between them.”
Background
Reflections on self-determination theory.
Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Koestner, R. (2008) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/a0012804 · Cited by 381 · see citing works
Psychological Needs as Basic Motives, Not Just Experiential Requirements
Sheldon, K. M., & Gunz, A. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00589.x · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Self-citation
Changes in materialism, changes in psychological well-being: Evidence from three longitudinal studies and an intervention experiment
Kasser, T., Rosenblum, K. L., Sameroff, A. J., Deci, E. L., Niemiec, C. P., Ryan, R. M., Árnadóttir, Ö., Bond, R., Dittmar, H., Dungan, N., et al. (2013) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-013-9371-4 · Cited by 359 · see citing works
“This procedure is justified given both its use in past research (e.g., Sheldon and Niemiec 2006), as well as the inter-correlations among these three SWB indicators in the present study (i.e., rs between |.34| and |.56| at T1 and between |.22| and |.61| at T3, all ps \ .01).”
Self-citation
Need Satisfaction and Well-Being: Testing Self-Determination Theory in Eight Cultures
Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Locke, K. D., Zhang, H., Shen, J., de Jesús Vargas-Flores, J., Ibáñez-Reyes, J., Tanaka-Matsumi, J., Curtis, G. J., Cabrera, H. F., et al. (2013) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022112466590 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Measuring basic needs satisfaction: Evaluating previous research and conducting new psychometric evaluations of the Basic Needs Satisfaction in General Scale
Johnston, M. M., & Finney, S. J. (2010) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2010.04.003 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
“…basic needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness has been positively related to well-being (e.g., Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006), satisfaction with life (e.g., Meyer, Enstrom, Harstveit, Bowles, & Beevers, 2007), aspirations (e.g., Niemiec, Ryan, &…”
Does taking the good with the bad make things worse? How abusive supervision and leader–member exchange interact to impact need satisfaction and organizational deviance
Lian, H., Ferris, D. L., & Brown, D. J. (2011) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.10.003 · Cited by 324 · see citing works
“Notably, while the three needs are distinguishable conceptually, thwarting of any need produces similar negative outcomes (Deci & Ryan, 2000) and the three needs overlap considerably in naturalistic settings (e.g., Baard, Deci, & Ryan, 2004; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006; Uysal, Lin, & Knee, 2010).”
Background
Are both classroom autonomy support and structure equally important for students' engagement? A multilevel analysis
Hospel, V., & Galand, B. (2016) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.09.001 · Cited by 275 · see citing works
“These considerations could supply more precision in the formulation of SDT regarding the importance or the balance of different needs in different conditions (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Integrating behavioral-motive and experiential-requirement perspectives on psychological needs: A two process model.
Sheldon, K. M. (2011) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0024758 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
“Still, the research reviewed under Hypothesis 2 suggests that the highest levels of well-being occur only if the different basic needs are all being satisfied at the same time and are relatively in balance with each other (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
General Need for Autonomy and Subjective Well-Being: A Meta-Analysis of Studies in the US and East Asia
Yu, S., Levesque‐Bristol, C., & MAEDA, Y. Y. (2017) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-017-9898-2 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
“Their measurement of BPN has subsequently been applied to studies that examine general satisfaction in life, rather than using the initial event-based procedures (e.g., Sheldon and Niemiec 2006).”
A proposed model of lifestyle balance
Matuska, K. M., & Christiansen, C. H. (2008) · Journal of Occupational Science · doi:10.1080/14427591.2008.9686602 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
“Using Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) provided evidence that a balance of satisfaction in the three need areas of competence, autonomy, and relatedness is important for well-being.”
Method
Self-determination theory: An approach to motivation in music education
Evans, P. (2015) · Musicae Scientiae · doi:10.1177/1029864914568044 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness, and Beneficence: A Multicultural Comparison of the Four Pathways to Meaningful Work
Martela, F., & Riekki, T. J. J. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01157 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Two traditions of happiness research, not two distinct types of happiness
Biswas‐Diener, R., Kashdan, T. B., & King, L. A. (2009) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760902844400 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Doing Good at Work Feels Good at Home, but Not Right Away: When and Why Perceived Prosocial Impact Predicts Positive Affect
Sonnentag, S., & Grant, A. M. (2012) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2012.01251.x · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Social support and social negativity findings in depression: perceived responsiveness to basic psychological needs
Ibarra-Rovillard, M. S., & Kuiper, N. A. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.01.005 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
An identity-based integrative needs model of crafting: Crafting within and across life domains.
de Bloom, J., Vaziri, H., Tay, L., & Kujanpää, M. (2020) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000495 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Balance Across Contexts: Importance of Balanced Need Satisfaction Across Various Life Domains
Milyavskaya, M., Gingras, I., Mageau, G. A., Koestner, R., Gagnon, H., Fang, J., & Boiché, J. C. S. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167209337036 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
“Unlike adult need satisfaction scales that either assess need satisfaction in a general manner (e.g., Reis et al., 2000; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006) or in one specific context (e.g., sports, Vlachopoulos & Michailidou, 2006; work, Baard et al., 2004), the adolescent scale created by Véronneau and her…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Wanting, having, and needing: Integrating motive disposition theory and self-determination theory.
Sheldon, K. M., & Schüler, J. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024952 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Self-citation
Heavy Is the Head that Wears the Crown: An Actor-centric Approach to Daily Psychological Power, Abusive Leader Behavior, and Perceived Incivility
Foulk, T. A., Lanaj, K., Tu, M., Erez, A., & Archambeau, L. (2017) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2015.1061 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
“The three needs overlap considerably in naturalistic settings (e.g., Baard, Deci, & Ryan, 2004; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006; Uysal, Lin, & Knee, 2010), and thwarting any one of these needs results in negative effects on overall need fulfillment (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Lian, Ferris, & Brown, 2012; Reis,…”
Background
Developing a Conceptual Framework for Life Skills Interventions
Hodge, K. P., Danish, S. J., & Martin, J. (2012) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000012462073 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
“BNT includes (a) the three basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness and (ii) the needssupportive motivational climate (see Figure 1; explained in detail later).”
Background
Goal conflict and well-being: a review and hierarchical model of goal conflict, ambivalence, self-discrepancy and self-concordance.
Kelly, R. E., Mansell, W., & Wood, A. M. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.05.011 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Revising Working Models Across Time: Relationship Situations That Enhance Attachment Security
Arriaga, X. B., Kumashiro, M., Simpson, J. A., & Overall, N. C. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868317705257 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“Achieving a good balance between various fundamental needs is strongly related to higher well-being (e.g., Kumashiro, Rusbult, & Finkel, 2008; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Background
An investigation of the unique, synergistic and balanced relationships between basic psychological needs and intrinsic motivation
Dysvik, A., Kuvaas, B., & Gagné, M. (2013) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/jasp.12068 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“Indeed, research shows that it is the satisfaction that is related to important outcomes, such as motivation and well-being (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Background
Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration in <scp>J</scp> apan: Controlling for the Big Five Personality Traits
Nishimura, T., & Suzuki, T. (2016) · Japanese Psychological Research · doi:10.1111/jpr.12131 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“Some previous research already used the personality traits as a control variable when examining the relationship between only need satisfaction and subjective well-being (e.g., Philippe, Koestner, Beaulieu-Pelletier, & Lecours, 2011; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Method
Influence of algorithmic management practices on workplace well-being – evidence from European organisations
Kinowska, H., & Sienkiewicz, Ł. J. (2023) · Information Technology & People · doi:10.1108/itp-02-2022-0079 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Perceptions of Organizational Politics: A Need Satisfaction Paradigm
Rosen, C. C., Ferris, D. L., Brown, D. J., Chen, Y., & Yan, M. N. (2013) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2013.0857 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Developmental trajectories of motivation in physical education: Course, demographic differences, and antecedents.
Ntoumanis, N., Barkoukis, V., & Thøgersen‐Ntoumani, C. (2009) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014696 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Such compensation processes will result in an unbalanced psychological need profile balance which might be detrimental for psychological health (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Close Relationships
Clark, M. S., & Lemay, E. P. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002025 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
The multiple determination of well-being: Independent effects of positive traits, needs, goals, selves, social supports, and cultural contexts
Sheldon, K. M., & Hoon, T. H. (2006) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9031-4 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Self-citation
What Does It Mean to Be in Touch With Oneself? Testing a Social Character Model of Self-congruence
Sheldon, K. M., Gunz, A., & Schachtman, T. R. (2010) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.503130 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“These 18 items include the nine positively-worded items used by Sheldon, Elliot, Kim, and Kasser ( 2001 ) to assess autonomy, competence, and relatedness need-satisfaction within people's “most satisfying events” (see also Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006 ; Sheldon & Tan, 2007 ).”
MethodSelf-citation
The Basic Psychological Needs at Work Scale: Measurement Invariance between Canada and France
Brien, M., Forest, J., Mageau, G. A., Boudrias, J., Desrumaux, P., Brunet, L., & Morin, E. M. (2012) · Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/j.1758-0854.2012.01067.x · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Needs and Well-Being Across Europe: Basic Psychological Needs Are Closely Connected With Well-Being, Meaning, and Symptoms of Depression in 27 European Countries
Martela, F., Lehmus-Sun, A., Parker, P. D., Pessi, A. B., & Ryan, R. M. (2022) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/19485506221113678 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
Materialism and Well–Being in the Uk and Chile: Basic Need Satisfaction and Basic Need Frustration as Underlying Psychological Processes
Unanue, W., Dittmar, H., Vignoles, V. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2014) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1954 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Momentary Happiness: The Role of Psychological Need Satisfaction
Howell, R. T., Chenot, D., Hill, G., & Howell, C. J. (2011) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-009-9166-1 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Extrinsic Value Orientation and Affective Forecasting: Overestimating the Rewards, Underestimating the Costs
Sheldon, K. M., Gunz, A., Nichols, C. P., & Ferguson, Y. (2010) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00612.x · Cited by 116 · see citing works
“As in much past research (Diener, 1994; Sheldon & Elliott, 1999; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006), we computed a composite SWB variable by summing positive affect and life satisfaction and subtracting negative affect.”
MethodSelf-citation
Navigating personal and relational concerns: The quest for equilibrium.
Kumashiro, M., Rusbult, C. E., & Finkel, E. J. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.94 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“If you believe that any material held in the repository infringes copyright law, please contact the Repository Team at Goldsmiths, University of London via the following email address: gro@gold.ac.uk.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Adolescents as active managers of their own psychological needs: The role of psychological need crafting in adolescents’ mental health
Laporte, N., Soenens, B., BRENNING, K. M., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2021) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.02.004 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
“An excessive and unbalanced focus on one of the needs, at the expense of the other needs (e.g., because of need sacriicing; Holding et al., 2020), is likely detrimental for adolescents ’ mental health (Emery et al., 2015; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Self-determination at work: Understanding the role of leader-member exchange
Graves, L. M., & Luciano, M. M. (2013) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-012-9336-z · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The Validation of the German Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction and Frustration Scale in the Context of Mental Health
Heissel, A., Pietrek, A., Flunger, B., Fydrich, T., Rapp, M. A., Heinzel, S., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2018) · European Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1027/2512-8442/a000017 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
The value of theory for enhancing and understanding e-health interventions
Pingree, S., Hawkins, R., Baker, T., DuBenske, L., Roberts, L. J., & Gustafson, D. H. (2010) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2009.09.035 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Toward a Better Understanding of the Relationship Between Friendship and Happiness: Perceived Responses to Capitalization Attempts, Feelings of Mattering, and Satisfaction of Basic Psychological Needs in Same-Sex Best Friendships as Predictors of Happiness
Demır, M., & Davidson, I. (2012) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-012-9341-7 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
How to Think About and Measure Psychological Well-Being
Warr, P. B. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203095249-16 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
“…Reynolds, Thase, Frank, and Fasiczka (2002) computed the proportion of all affects that were positive, Fredrickson and Losada (2005) examined the ratio of positive and negative emotions, and Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) recorded the sum of absolute differences between different need satisfactions.”
Background
Social support and acute stress symptoms (ASSs) during the COVID-19 outbreak: deciphering the roles of psychological needs and sense of control
Zhou, X., & Yao, B. (2020) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1779494 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“This scale showed good reliability in previous studies (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
MethodResult
K−12 teachers' stress and burnout during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review
Westphal, A., Kalinowski, E., Hoferichter, C. J., & Vock, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.920326 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
“Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-5 Acute Stress Disorder Diagnostic Criteria B (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), 14 items; α = 0.86 Revised Received Social Support Questionnaire (Zhen et al., 2018); Basic Psychological Needs Scale (Sheldon and Niemiec, 2006): needs for autonomy, comp…”
Influential
Motivation
Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001008 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Reactance, autonomy and paths to persuasion: Examining perceptions of threats to freedom and informational value
Pavey, L., & SPARKS, P. B. (2009) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-009-9137-1 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“Because the extent to which autonomy leads to greater psychological well-being is dependent on feelings of being related or connected to others (see Sheldon and Niemiec 2006 ), autonomous individuals may be more likely to have greater respect and regard for other people’s opinions.”
Background
The Two Faces of Leisure Activity Engagement: Harmonious and Obsessive Passion in Relation to Intrapersonal Conflict and Life Domain Outcomes
Stenseng, F. (2008) · Leisure Sciences · doi:10.1080/01490400802353224 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“From a life domain perspective on passion, this situation may provoke an exclusion of other life domains among individuals with a dominantly obsessive approach, whereas individuals with a harmonious approach to a larger extent will try to balance their domains to maintain several sources for complementary need satisfa…”
Background
Self-determination theory: A theoretical and empirical overview in occupational health psychology
den Broeck, A. V., Vansteenkiste, M., & Witte, H. D. (2008) · Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Energizing and De-Motivating Effects of Norm-Conflict
McDonald, R. I., Fielding, K. S., & Louis, W. R. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212464234 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“Norm-conflict was computed by averaging the absolute value of the three-way difference scores among the descriptive norms of the three groups (see Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Method
On the psychology of extremism: How motivational imbalance breeds intemperance.
Kruglanski, A. W., Szumowska, E., Köpetz, C., Vallerand, R. J., & Pierro, A. (2020) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000260 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“First, akin to Cannon’s (1932) homeostatic notions it implies that fulfilment of those needs is essential, if not to survival as such at least to overall contentment and well-being (cf. Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Background
Do implicit motives and basic psychological needs interact to predict well-being and flow? Testing a universal hypothesis and a matching hypothesis
Schüler, J., Brandstätter, V., & Sheldon, K. M. (2013) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-012-9317-2 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“…as well as fear of failure both have to be considered in order to determine a resultant motivation tendency in achievement situations, we computed a difference score by subtracting the fear of failure score (M = 3.46, SD = 2.42, Cronbach’s Alpha = .67) from the hope of success score (M =…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citation
Autonomous Motivation in the Indonesian Classroom: Relationship with Teacher Support Through the Lens of Self-Determination Theory
Maulana, R., Helms‐Lorenz, M., Irnidayanti, Y., & van de Grift, W. J. C. M. (2016) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-016-0282-5 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“…the three teaching behaviour together are important for the learning interest of Indonesian students, which is in line with the evidence yielded by Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) in a predominantly Caucasian sample for the need balance hypothesis stating that all three needs contribute to the…”
Result
The development of the Global Flourishing Study questionnaire: charting the evolution of a new 109-item inventory of human flourishing
Lomas, T., Bradshaw, M., Case, B., Cowden, R., Crabtree, S., English, C., Fogleman, A., Johnson, K. A., Ritter, Z., Johnson, B. R., et al. (2025) · BMC Global and Public Health · doi:10.1186/s44263-025-00139-9 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Capturing Changes in Social Identities over Time and How They Become Part of the Self‐concept
Amiot, C. E., de la Sablonnière, R., Smith, L. G. E., & Smith, J. R. (2015) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12169 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
The Salience of Adolescent Romantic Experiences for Romantic Relationship Qualities in Young Adulthood
Madsen, S. D., & Collins, W. A. (2011) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00737.x · Cited by 122 · see citing works
“…(Peterson, 2002), low anger and hostility (Gottman, 1994), shared positive affect (Levesque, 1993), and the ability to balance the needs of the relationship with the needs of each individual when discussing conflict-laden topics (Roisman, Collins, Sroufe, & Egeland, 2005; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Background
Here, there, & everywhere: Development and validation of a cross-culturally representative measure of subjective career success
Briscoe, J. P., Kaše, R., Dries, N., Dysvik, A., Unite, J. A., Adeleye, I., Andresen, M., Apospori, E., Babalola, O., Bagdadli, S., et al. (2021) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2021.103612 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
The influence of breast cancer survivors' Perceived partner social support and need satisfaction on depressive symptoms: A longitudinal analysis
Talley, A. E., Molix, L. A., Schlegel, R. J., & Bettencourt, A. (2008) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870440802582682 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“Sheldon & Elliot, 1999 ; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006 ) and to improve the reliability of the role-related need satisfaction measure, the four items were combined into a single index ( α = 0.”
Background
Getting New Staff to Stay: The Mediating Role of Organizational Identification
Smith, L. G. E., Amiot, C. E., Callan, V. J., Terry, D. J., & Smith, J. R. (2010) · British Journal of Management · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8551.2010.00728.x · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“To assess the degree of imbalance (cf. Sheldon and Niemec, 2006) between the levels of identification, a difference score was computed by subtracting each teamlevel self-investment subscale from each equivalent organizational-level self-investment subscale.”
Factor structure and dimensionality of the balanced measure of psychological needs among Portuguese high school students. Relations to well-being and ill-being
Cordeiro, P., Paixão, P., Lens, W., Lacante, M., & Sheldon, K. (2016) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2015.12.010 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Need satisfaction primarily relates to well-being and optimal integrated functioning (e.g.,Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Sheldon, Ryan, & Reis, 1996), need dissatisfaction positively predicts feelings of low well-being, but not necessarily experiences of ill-being (e.g., Bartholomew,…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Do Some People Need Autonomy More Than Others? Implicit Dispositions Toward Autonomy Moderate the Effects of Felt Autonomy on Well‐Being
Schüler, J., Sheldon, K. M., Prentice, M., & Halusic, M. (2016) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12133 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Self-citation
The interplay between psychological need satisfaction and psychological need frustration within a work context: A variable and person-oriented approach
Rouse, P. C., Turner, P. J. F., Siddall, A. G., Schmid, J., Standage, M., & Bilzon, J. L. J. (2020) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-019-09816-3 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
The role of empathy and psychological need satisfaction in pharmacy students’ burnout and well-being
Cho, E., & Jeon, S. (2019) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-019-1477-2 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
The Eudaimonics of Human Strengths: The Relations Between Character Strengths and Well-Being
Harzer, C. (2016) · International handbooks of quality-of-life · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42445-3_20 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Description and Development of the Life Balance Inventory
Matuska, K. (2012) · OTJR: Occupational Therapy Journal of Research · doi:10.3928/15394492-20110610-01 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“…from a balanced lifestyle mix that yields the most satisfaction with life as a whole (Veenhoven, 2009); balanced need satisfaction (Sheldon, 2009; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006); satisfactory engagement in a mix of activity experiences (Persson & Jonsson, 2009); living in congruence with personal…”
Longitudinal Associations of Autonomy, Relatedness, and Competence With the Well-being of Nursing Home Residents
Kloos, N., Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., & Westerhof, G. J. (2019) · The Gerontologist · doi:10.1093/geront/gny005 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) proposed in their balance hypothesis that all three needs should be equally satisfied for optimal well-being.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Work-Life Balance in the Digital Workplace: The Impact of Schedule Flexibility and Telecommuting on Work-Life Balance and Overall Life Satisfaction
Lee, D., & Sirgy, M. J. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-24463-7_18 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Having too little or too much time is linked to lower subjective well-being.
Sharif, M. A., Mogilner, C., & Ersner-Hershfield, H. (2021) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000391 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Clarifying Eudaimonia and Psychological Functioning to Complement Evaluative and Experiential Well-Being: Why Basic Psychological Needs Should Be Measured in National Accounts of Well-Being
Martela, F., & Ryan, R. M. (2023) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221141099 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“According to SDT, all three needs are independently important to well-being, and thus satisfaction of one need cannot fully compensate for the satisfaction of another (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Background
A Subjectively-Based Definition of Life Balance using Personal Meaning in Occupation
Eakman, A. M. (2014) · Journal of Occupational Science · doi:10.1080/14427591.2014.955603 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Ongoing validation of measurement approaches will be required to begin to achieve consensus regarding the definition of life balance, given multiple conceptual lenses (Anaby, Backman, & Jarus, 2010; Jonsson & Persson, 2006; Marks & MacDermid, 1996; Matuska, 2012; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
BackgroundResult
Implicit motives and basic psychological needs
Schüler, J., Baumann, N., Chasiotis, A., Bender, M., & Baum, I. R. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12431 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self determination-based design to achieve acceptance of assisted living technologies for older adults
Dupuy, L., Consel, C., & Sauzeon, H. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.07.042 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Nonlinear effect of social interaction quantity on psychological well-being: Diminishing returns or inverted U?
Ren, D., Stavrova, O., & Loh, W. W. (2021) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000373 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Designing for Friendship
Depping, A. E., Johanson, C., & Mandryk, R. L. (2018) · Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play · doi:10.1145/3242671.3242702 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Adolescents’ autonomous functioning and implicit theories of ability as predictors of their school achievement and week-to-week study regulation and well-being
Mouratidis, A. A., Michou, A., & Vasiou, A. (2016) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.09.001 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“…& Bargmann, 2003) or through daily need satisfaction (Bartholomew et al., 2011), relates positively to well-being in adolescents (Gagné et al., 2003) or young adults (Moller, Deci, & Elliot, 2010; Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan, 2000; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006; Sheldon, Ryan, & Reis, 1996).”
Need-supportive teaching and student engagement in the classroom: Comparing the additive, synergistic, and global contributions
Olivier, É., Galand, B., Morin, A. J. S., & Hospel, V. (2020) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2020.101389 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Perceived principal's learning support and its relationships with psychological needs satisfaction, organisational commitment and change-oriented work behaviour: A Self-Determination Theory’s perspective
Lee, A. N., Nie, Y., & Bai, B. (2020) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2020.103076 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
The Ambivalence of Job Autonomy and the Role of Job Design Demands
Dettmers, J., & Bredehöft, F. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.16993/sjwop.81 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“…2007; Bakker et al., 2010; Gagné & Deci, 2005; Schaufeli & Taris, 2014; van den Broeck et al., 2008), and the satisfaction of this need fosters physical and psychological health at work (Baard et al., 2004; Gagné & Deci, 2005; Johnston & Finney, 2010; Sheldon et al., 2001; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006).”
Background
A metamodel approach towards self-determination theory: a study of New Zealand managers' organisational citizenship behaviours
Roche, M., & Haar, J. M. (2013) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2013.770779 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“of goal pursuit, motivation and attainment concerns the degree to which people are able to experience the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness (Sheldon and Niemiec 2006; Ryan and Deci 2008; Sheldon and Filak 2008).”
Background
How need for cognition and perceived control are differentially linked to emotional outcomes in the transition to retirement
Bye, D., & Pushkar, D. (2009) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-009-9135-3 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“The strong contributing power of a stable cognitive orientation toward autonomy and competence in these older adults underlines the importance of continued balanced need satisfaction across the lifespan, and is consistent with prevailing theories about motivation and selfregulation ( Sheldon and Niemiec 2006; Ryan and…”
Result
Coach–athlete relationships, basic psychological needs satisfaction and thwarting, and the teaching of life skills in Canadian high school sport
Camiré, M., Rathwell, S., Turgeon, S., & Kendellen, K. (2019) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/1747954119869542 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Why do individuals suffer during unemployment? Analyzing the role of deprived psychological needs in a six-wave longitudinal study.
Zechmann, A., & Paul, K. I. (2019) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/ocp0000154 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Well-being in volleyball players: Examining the contributions of independent and balanced psychological need satisfaction
Mack, D. E., Wilson, P. M., Oster, K. G., Kowalski, K. C., Crocker, P. R. E., & Sylvester, B. D. (2011) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2011.05.006 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“…positive affect in the present investigation replicate those demonstrated in previous sport-based literature (Perreault et al., 2007) and hedonic well-being in university students (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006) while contrasting (Anderson-Butcher & Amorose, 2008; Lightheart et al., 2010) in athletes.”
Influential
The link between value motives, value success, and well‐being among people diagnosed with cancer
Ciarrochi, J., Fisher, D., & Lane, L. (2011) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.1832 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
“Our finding that greater success at valued living positively correlated with psychological well-being is consistent with previous research [26,38,39,63] including Lundgren et al.”
Result
Measuring Occupational Balance: A Theoretical Exploration of Two Approaches
Anaby, D., Backman, C. L., & Jarus, T. (2010) · Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy · doi:10.2182/cjot.2010.77.5.4 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“The idea that balance and imbalance are differing dimensions falls within Sheldon and colleagues’ work (Sheldon, 2009; Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006), although different terminology was used.”
Background
The Relationship of Personal Growth Initiative, Psychological Well-Being and Psychological Distress among Adolescents
Ayub, N., & Iqbal, S. (2012) · Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Assisted versus asserted autonomy satisfaction: Their unique associations with wellbeing, integration of experience, and conflict negotiation
Legault, L., Ray, K., Hudgins, A., Pelosi, M., & Shannon, W. (2017) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-016-9593-3 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Examining the life skill development and transfer experiences of former high school athletes
Kendellen, K., & Camiré, M. (2015) · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1080/1612197x.2015.1114502 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“However, as a balance of needs satisfaction has been identified in the BNT literature as key to promoting psychological well-being (Sheldon & Niemiec, 2006), future research should examine the development and application of life skills associated with each basic need for the same person.”
Background
Workaholism, life balance, and well‐being: A comparative analysis
Matuska, K. (2010) · Journal of Occupational Science · doi:10.1080/14427591.2010.9686681 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
“In four studies using multiple designs, Sheldon and Niemiec (2006) found that a balance of satisfaction in relatedness, autonomy, and competence, the three need areas identified in Self Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000), had unique additive effects on psychological well-being.”
Background
Testing Self-Determination Theory via Nigerian and Indian adolescents
Sheldon, K. M., Abad, N., & Omoile, J. (2009) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025409340095 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citation

The Key to Employee Motivation: A Competitive Leadership Approach
Tesmer, K., & Oxenford, C. B. (2021) · Journal of Student Research · doi:10.47611/jsr.v9i2.808 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Impact of Performance-Contingent Rewards on Perceived Autonomy and Competence
Houlfort, N., Koestner, R., Joussemet, M., Nantel-Vivier, A., & Lekes, N. (2002) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1022819120237 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
A test of self-determination theory in the exercise domain
Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N., & Duda, J. L. (2006) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00102.x · Cited by 482 · see citing works
The Cosmorama stereoscope
(1856) · Journal of the Franklin Institute · doi:10.1016/s0016-0032(56)80001-x
Motivation of people with intellectual disabilities in technology design activities: the role of autonomy, competence, and relatedness
Safari, M. C., Wass, S., & Thygesen, E. (2022) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2021.2015442 · Cited by 21 · see citing works

Authors: Sheldon, K. M., & Niemiec, C. P.
Affiliations: University of Missouri (US)
University of Rochester (US)
ORCID: Sheldon, Kennon M.
Niemiec, Christopher P.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2006-08
Volume: 91
Issue: 2
Pages: 331-341
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.331
OpenAlex: W2021791208
Cited by: 454
References: 84
Citations by year: 2026: 19 · 2025: 30 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 29 · 2021: 34 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 28 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 21 · 2016: 20 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 21 · 2012: 29
FWCI: 15.56
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychological Well-being and Life Satisfaction
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Behavior and Motivation
Keywords: basic psychological needs, need satisfaction, psychological well-being, autonomy, competence, relatedness, self-determination theory, daily diary
MeSH terms: Female, Humans, Male, Personal Satisfaction, Quality of Life, Surveys and Questionnaires

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It's not just the amount that counts: Balanced need-satisfaction also affects well-being

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