Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: Perspectives from affective neuroscience.

“cumulative exposure to elevated glucocorticoids (McEwen, 1998).”

“When individuals regulate their emotions, the amygdala is thought to be down-regulated by the vmPFC and hippocampus (Banks et al., 2007; Davidson et al., 2000; Milad, Rauch, Pitman, & Quirk, 2006), both of which have extensive connections with the amygdala.”

“Moreover, such asymmetries reflect both state and trait components (32, 33) with both phasic positive mood as well as dispositional positive affect associated with greater relative left-sided anterior activation.”

“The data are consistent with a motivational view of emotional organization, which holds that affective reports and behavior are determined in significant part by the activation of appetitive and defensive motive systems (Lang et al., 1997; see also Cacioppo et al., 1999; Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000 ).”

“At the physical level, emotional reactions emerge from neural activity that occurs in milliseconds (see Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000 ).”

“A conceptual solution to this problem lies in the temporal unfolding of an emotional response (Baumann, Kaschel, & Kuhl, 2007; Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000 ; Skinner & Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007 ).”

“Reflecting a core motivational construct (e.g., Davidson et al. 2000), the approach-avoidance continuum maps easily onto broader theories of biobehavioral functioning.”

“Researchers studying prefrontal EEG asymmetry associated with approach versus withdrawal behavior have noted considerable plasticity in early childhood (Davidson et al., 2000).”

“Although both classes ref er to incentives of reward, external motivation arises f rom the desire to approach (avoid) an externally imposed reward (punishment); while internal motivation arises f rom a more automatic, internally driven desire to obtain reward, or satisf y one's needs (Davidson et al., 2000; Ochsner an…”

“[40] Davidson RJ, Jackson DC, Kalin NH.”

“Davidson et al.[146] proposed that ‘‘in the absence of this normal inhibitory input, the amygdala remains unchecked and continues to remain activated’’ (p. 898).”

“In their recent review, Davidson, and colleagues (Davidson et al. 2000a) noted that various forms of psychopathology involving disorders of affect could be characterized as disorders in context regulation of affect.”

“Over-excitation and deprivation can influence the affective system and may induce changes in the emotional circuitry of the brain that can contribute to stress-related psychopathology ( Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000 ).”

“…on EEG measures of prefrontal asymmetry (Coan, 2003), we have suggested that environmental influences, particularly early in development, are likely to be present and to shape aspects of prefrontal function, including baseline measures of functional prefrontal asymmetry (Davidson et al., 2000a).”

“This conceptualization of ER flexibility draws upon basic research on affective chronometry (e.g., Thompson 1994; Gross 1998, 2013; Davidson et al. 2000; Sheppes and Gross 2011) and motivation (e.g., Bradley and Lang 2000; Magen and Gross 2010) as well as on the burgeoning literature on affective…”

“Dysfunctions in this neural circuit may lead to susceptibility to depression and violence (Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000; Davidson, Putnam, & Larson, 2000) and therefore undermine successful cognitive functioning.”

“Disrupted LPFC activity has been observed in depression (Baxter et al 989; Bench et al 1993; Davidson et al 2000; Drevets 1999; arvey et al 2005; Mayberg et al 1999).”

“, & Mazumdar, M. (1994). Operating characteristics of a rank correlation test for publication bias.”

“Although there is good evidence that being happy and cheerful is associated with improved brain chemistry, blood pressure and heart rate [127,128], and with living longer [129], this kind of evidence does not yet feature prominently in public debate.”

“More specifically, no one has ever convincingly presented coherent facial, vocal, gestural, physiological, or cerebral indexes that approximate a 1:1 relation to an emotional state ( Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000 ).”

“Similar interaction might also sometimes occur in the reverse direction, when core processes of emotion are subject to voluntary regulation by cognitive systems (Davidson et al., 2000).”

“This approach-avoidance continuum also reflects a fundamental motivational construct (Carver & Scheier 1998, Davidson et al. 2000).”

“Electroencephalographic (EEG) and neuroimaging data indicate that approach of incentives tends to relate to higher relative activation in areas of the left prefrontal cerebral cortex, suggesting that the circuitry underlying approach is partially localized in these areas (e.g., Harmon-Jones & Allen, 1997; Sobotka, Dav…”

“The concept of regulation has many definitions within varying research traditions (Campos, Frankel, & Camras, 2004 ; Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004 ; Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000 ).”

“A related, older methodology involves exposing participants to various ‘‘threats’’ such as a painful injection (Schachter, 1959), a difficult intelligence test (Braunstein-Bercovitz et al., 2001), electric shock (Cornelius and Averill, 1980), or speaking in public (Davidson et al., 2000b).”

“To index the alpha power unique to each site, we regressed mean whole-head power from the alpha power for each individual site (see Davidson, Jackson, & Larson, 2000, for description of the method).”

“Depression can affect health through many pathways; these influences may occur through health behaviors or compliance with medical regimens, as well as through alterations in the functioning of the central nervous system (CNS), immune, endocrine, and cardiovascular systems [5–8].”

“Affect identification is the only test in this battery that measures social cognition, a domain of increased interest in behavioral neuroscience (Davidson et al., 2000).”

“A second model has posited that the left frontal cortical region is involved in the experience and expression of approach-related emotions and that the right frontal cortical region is involved in experience and expression of withdrawal-related emotions ( Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000; Fox, 1991; Harmon-Jones & All…”

“Lesions to the hippocampus abolish this context-dependent form of memory but have no effect on learning cue-punishment contingencies [109].”

“Our focus was on power in the alpha band (8–13 Hz), though we extracted power in all frequency bands (for methodological discussions, see Davidson, Chapman, Chapman, & Henriques, 1990; Davidson, Jackson, & Larson, 2000 ).”

“Contemporary views of motivation similarly emphasize approach and avoidance systems motivated by positive and negative affect (Carver, 2001; Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000).”

“Approach based psychometric models of positive emotion have also been used to conceptualize stable PA traits states such as subjective well-being (Davidson et al., 2000; Panksepp et al., 2002) as well as the personality trait of extroversion which is associated with high levels of PA (Diener, 1998).”

“The increased cortical activation at posterior clusters (measured at left- and rightsided occipital and parietal electrodes) in the combined conditions compared to the picture conditions is in line with findings from neuroimaging and electrophysiological studies showing that this part of the cortex is implicated in th…”

“…15 target patients with chronic and stable focal lesions in specific components of a neural circuitry that has been shown to be critical for the processing of emotions (Damasio, 1994; Davidson et al., 2000; Dolan, 2002; LeDoux, 1996; Rahman et al., 2001; Sanfey, Hastie, Colvin, & Grafman, 2003).”

“A wealth of evidence for structural plasticity in frontal and hippocampal regions due to environmental enrichment comes from research on animals (Davidson et al., 2000; Diamond, 2001; Kempermann et al., 2002).”

“Davidson, Jackson, and Kalin (2000) have proposed that the mechanism underlying suppression of negative emotion is via an inhibitory connection from regions of the PFC to the amygdala.”

“The DLPFC has thus been implicated in emotion regulation (e.g., Davidson et al., 2000), and activates during tasks requiring conscious emotion regulation (e.g., Ochsner et al., 2004).”

“Together with ventromedial frontal cortex, including anterior cingulate, they mediate top-down affect regulation in their interconnection to underlying limbic areas (61,62,65,66).”

“This hypothesis has several implications for the present study.”

“The medial prefrontal cortex has been hypothesized to have specific roles for emotion-related decision making(6) and emotional self-regulation.(7) The insula is thought of as the brain's "alarm center," integrating internal somatic cues with emotional experience,(8) and has been linked specifically to disgust.”

“For example, as was noted earlier, there is evidence that experiences consistent with approach and positive affect are associated with relatively greater activation of left anterior cortical areas and that experiences consistent with avoidance and distress are associated with relatively greater activation of right ant…”

“Specific skills of emotion regulation might include awareness of emotional experience, identification of specific emotions and their intensity, constructive emotional expression, and distress tolerance (Cole et al, 2004; Davidson et al, 2000; Thompson, 1994).”

“, 1992; Fuster, 1997), and evidence suggests that these structures are an important part of the circuitry involved in regulation of emotion in humans (Davidson et al., 2000).”

“Consistent with this view, the human amygdala’s role in negative emotion has been amply demonstrated by a wealth of data from a range of methods and domains (see Aggleton, 2000, and Davidson et al., 2000, for reviews), but little evidence exists for a corresponding role in positive emotion.”

“…left anterior cortical activation increase in MBSR participants may indicate emotion regulatory processes are taking place as activation in this area is correlated with positive emotional expression and higher levels of dispositional positive affect (R. J. Davidson et al., 2000; Urry et al., 2004).”

“, 1997a), and medial prefrontal activation reflecting emotion regulation (Davidson et al., 2000)).”

“If a consistently sad or anxious student continually withdraws from aversive stimuli (such as negative experiences while participating in learning groups), he or she is likely to miss out on the benefits of working with peers (Davidson et al., 2000).”

“Further, this control is primarily localized within a limited number of brain regions that function together as a neural circuit or set of interconnected circuits (see below; e.g., Davidson et al., 2000; Gregg & Siegel, 2001; Ishai.”

“It is interesting, however, that the general sense of these ideas is echoed in a family of neurobiological motive theories that currently are receiving considerable attention from personality and social psychologists (e.g., Cloninger, 1998; Davidson, 1998; Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000; Depue & Collins, 1999; Depue…”

“It has been shown that correlates of emotions can be observed from brain activity, especially in the pre-frontal cortex and the amygdala (Adolphs et al., 2003; Damasio et al., 2000; Davidson, 2003; Davidson et al., 2000; Rolls, 2000).”

“…compared with nondepressed controls, depressed individuals have been found to exhibit less positive expressive behavior in response to pleasant film and pleasant drink stimuli (Berenbaum & Oltmanns, 1992) and to be less behaviorally responsive to reward contingencies (Henriques & Davidson, 2000).”

“Following A. R. Damasio’s (1994) somatic marker theory, various researchers have similarly found that orbito-frontal cortex integrates emotional and conceptual information (e.g., Davidson, 2000; Davidson, Jackson, & Kalin, 2000 ).”

“According to Donahue (1985), the latter is a “religion of comfort and social convention, a self-serving, instrumental approach shaped to suit oneself” (p.”