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Cited by 150Sleep and Wakefulness ResearchMemory Processes and InfluencesMemory and Neural Mechanisms

Memory and Sleep: How Sleep Cognition Can Change the Waking Mind for the Better

Open access
Paller, Ken A., Creery, Jessica D., Schechtman, Eitan·2021·Annual Review of Psychology
DOI 10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050815PMC PMC7983127
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Abstract

The memories that we retain can serve many functions. They guide our future actions, form a scaffold for constructing the self, and continue to shape both the self and the way we perceive the world. Although most memories we acquire each day are forgotten, those integrated within the structure of multiple prior memories tend to endure. A rapidly growing body of research is steadily elucidating how the consolidation of memories depends on their reactivation during sleep. Processing memories during sleep not only helps counteract their weakening but also supports problem solving, creativity, and emotional regulation. Yet, sleep-based processing might become maladaptive, such as when worries are excessively revisited. Advances in research on memory and sleep can thus shed light on how this processing influences our waking life, which can further inspire the development of novel strategies for decreasing detrimental rumination-like activity during sleep and for promoting beneficial sleep cognition.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that sleep, especially NREM/SWS, supports memory consolidation through reactivation and nested oscillations, with consequences for problem solving, creativity, emotional regulation, and well-being. It also proposes that maladaptive sleep-based memory processing may contribute to rumination and psychiatric symptoms, and that targeted memory reactivation (TMR) can modify these processes.

Key findings

  • Memory reactivation during sleep, especially NREM/SWS, is linked to consolidation; hippocampal sharp-wave/ripples (70–110 Hz in humans, 150–200 Hz in rodents) nest within thalamo-cortical spindles (11–16 Hz, 0.5–3 s) and cortical slow oscillations (≤1 Hz), providing a temporal frame for hippocampal–neocortical communication.
  • A meta-analysis including over 90 experiments found that TMR cues presented during SWS or N2 selectively improved memory for cued information relative to uncued information; TMR benefits have been shown for spatial, skill, vocabulary, and word recall, and can enhance problem solving and creativity.
  • Sleep processing can support problem solving and emotional regulation; in one study, after an 8-hour break including sleep or wake, only 35% of participants discovered a hidden shortcut, but participants who slept were more likely to discover it than those who did not.
  • Maladaptive sleep cognition may contribute to psychiatric conditions: sleep disturbances are reported in 50–80% of people with psychiatric disorders; MDD shows reduced slow-wave activity and altered dynamics; REM instability/arousals are linked to PTSD and insomnia; and TMR cueing negative memories increased negative ratings one week later in socially anxious adolescents but not healthy ones.

Methods

  • Narrative review synthesizing human and rodent studies of memory consolidation during sleep, including EEG/intracranial recordings, fMRI, behavioral sleep/wake comparisons, TMR, and meta-analytic evidence.
  • No new primary data or sample; the paper integrates prior findings and proposes a conceptual framework linking sleep memory processing to waking cognition and well-being.
  • Main analysis is conceptual synthesis across systems consolidation, sleep physiology (SWRs, SOs, spindles), TMR, creativity/problem solving, emotion, and psychiatric disorders.

Limitations

  • The paper states that many mechanisms remain not fully understood, including hippocampal–neocortical contributions to memory change, and that the jury is still out on whether sleep effects apply universally across memory types.
  • The paper notes mixed results: SO enhancement sometimes occurs without memory improvement; word-pair recall measures often have low test-retest reliability; some studies failed to find sleep benefits for problem solving; TMR may not produce the same reactivation as spontaneous reactivation; and IAT measures have poor reliability, with one TMR bias result failing to replicate.
  • Evident from the text: as a review, it does not provide new experimental tests, and causal claims about maladaptive sleep cognition and psychiatric disorders are often speculative or hypothesized rather than directly established.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050815

Cites

171 of 171 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 141 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    Behavioral studies have produced ample evidence of superior retrieval of various types of information after a period of sleep compared to a period of wake.

    “Behavioral studies of memory consolidation during sleep have produced ample evidence of superior retrieval of various types of information after a period of sleep compared to a period of wake (e.g., Karni et al. 1994, Plihal & Born 1997, Walker et al. 2002, Tucker et al. 2006).”
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    • cites Plihal & Born 1997

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    • cites Walker et al. 2002

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  • Findingreasoning

    Damage to the medial temporal lobe can lead to a profound impairment in learning, or anterograde amnesia.

    “In keeping with this idea, damage to the medial temporal lobe can lead to a profound impairment in learning, or anterograde amnesia.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Human declarative memories undergo consolidation for many months after learning.

    “The proposal that human declarative memories undergo consolidation for many months after learning, initially regarded by researchers as surprising, is now widely accepted (Squire 1992, Squire & Wixted 2011).”
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    • cites Squire 1992

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    • cites Squire & Wixted 2011

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  • Findingcitation

    The temporal patterns of action potentials exhibited during wake are repeated during sleep, constituting memory replay.

    “This finding was later extended to show that the temporal patterns of action potentials exhibited during wake are repeated during sleep, constituting memory replay (Skaggs & McNaughton 1996).”
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    • cites Skaggs & McNaughton 1996

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  • Findingcitation

    Rodent hippocampal place cells with fields used in recent exploration fired more frequently during sleep compared to cells with fields not encountered during pre-sleep exploration.

    “Rodent hippocampal place cells with fields used in recent exploration fired more frequently during sleep compared to cells with fields not encountered during pre-sleep exploration (Pavlides & Winson 1989).”
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    • cites Pavlides & Winson 1989

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 47
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

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    Findingcitation

    Damage to the medial temporal lobe produces not only anterograde amnesia, but also temporally graded retrograde amnesia, which spares remote but not recent declarative memories.

    “Damage to this brain region generally produces not only anterograde amnesia, but also temporally graded retrograde amnesia, which spares remote but not recent declarative memories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    Spindles originate in the thalamus and propagate to different neocortical sites.

    “Spindles originate in the thalamus and propagate to different neocortical sites (Fernandez & Luthi 2020).”
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    • cites Fernandez & Luthi 2020

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    Findingcitation

    The sleeping brain suppresses sensory input during sleep, but some sensory processing nevertheless persists, perhaps in order to monitor the surroundings.

    “Although the sleeping brain suppresses sensory input during sleep, some sensory processing nevertheless persists, perhaps in order to monitor the surroundings (Andrillon & Kouider 2019).”
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    Findingcitation

    Slow spindles (≤13 Hz) tend to be nested in the down-state of the SO, whereas fast spindles (>13 Hz) are nested in the up-state.

    “For example, slow spindles (≤13 Hz) tend to be nested in the down-state of the SO, whereas fast spindles (>13 Hz) are nested in the up-state (Mölle et al. 2011, Cox et al. 2014).”
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    • cites Cox et al. 2014

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    Findingcitation

    Electrical stimulation with transcranial alternating current was used to boost spindle activity, also benefiting motor memory consolidation.

    “Similarly, electrical stimulation with transcranial alternating current was used to boost spindle activity, also benefiting motor memory consolidation (Lustenberger et al. 2016).”
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    • cites Lustenberger et al. 2016

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    Findingcitation

    Many studies have shown enhanced SOs and a concurrent improvement in retention over sleep.

    “Many such studies have shown enhanced SOs and a concurrent improvement in retention over sleep (Marshall et al. 2006, Ngo et al. 2013, Westerberg et al. 2015, Papalambros et al. 2017).”
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    • cites Ngo et al. 2013

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    • cites Westerberg et al. 2015

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    Findingcitation

    Disruption of SWRs during sleep negatively affects memory, whereas their artificial extension benefits memory during wake.

    “Furthermore, disruption of SWRs during sleep negatively affects memory (Girardeau et al. 2009), whereas their artificial extension benefits memory during wake (Fernández-Ruiz et al. 2019).”
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    Findingcitation

    In rodents, wake SWRs coincide with high-fidelity replay and remain local, whereas sleep SWRs coincide with noisier replay and are coordinated with widespread cortical SOs.

    “In rodents, wake SWRs coincide with high-fidelity replay and remain local, whereas sleep SWRs coincide with noisier replay and, as described below, are coordinated with widespread cortical SOs (Roumis & Frank 2015).”
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    Findingcitation

    The GABAA agonist zolpidem was found to increase sleep spindles and to improve word-pair recall but not motor-sequence learning.

    “In a pharmacological study, the GABAA agonist zolpidem (Ambien®) was found to increase sleep spindles and to improve word-pair recall but not motor-sequence learning (Mednick et al. 2013).”
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    Findingcitation

    Higher spindle density has been associated with better memory in word-pair learning, visuospatial learning, episodic learning, and procedural learning.

    “Higher spindle density has been associated with better memory in word-pair learning (Gais et al. 2002), visuospatial learning (Clemens et al. 2006), episodic learning (Cox et al. 2012), and procedural learning (Milner et al. 2006, Nishida & Walker 2007).”
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    • cites Clemens et al. 2006

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    • cites Cox et al. 2012

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    Findingreasoning

    A study by Tilley (1979) did not have a large impact because sounds played during REM did not enhance memory performance, and at the time REM was the central focus of questions about consolidation during sleep.

    “For example, a study by Tilley (1979) did not have a large impact because sounds played during REM did not enhance memory performance, and at the time REM was the central focus of questions about consolidation during sleep.”
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    Findingcitation

    In a subsequent TMR study by Rudoy et al. (2009), spatial learning was similarly improved but using sounds: The results showed less forgetting for object locations that were cued by a sound during sleep compared to those that were not cued.

    “In a subsequent TMR study by Rudoy et al. (2009), spatial learning was similarly improved but using sounds (Figure 2c): The results showed less forgetting for object locations that were cued by a sound during sleep compared to those that were not cued.”
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    • cites Rudoy et al. 2009

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    Interpretationnone given

    Sleep-based processing can become maladaptive, for example when worries are excessively revisited.

    “Yet, sleep-based processing might become maladaptive, such as when worries are excessively revisited.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Consolidation largely happens without our awareness because we are asleep during it.

    “We postulate here that consolidation largely transpires without us knowing about it—because we are asleep at the time.”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Changes in memory storage during sleep may shape not only what we can remember but also who we are.

    “Ultimately, changes in memory storage during sleep may shape not only what we can remember but also who we are.”
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    Interpretationnone given

    Processing memories during sleep helps counteract their weakening and also supports problem solving, creativity, and emotional regulation.

    “Processing memories during sleep not only helps counteract their weakening but also supports problem solving, creativity, and emotional regulation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Some declarative memories can become independent of the hippocampus; memories may become schematic, lose details, and be transformed to only hold the bare facts, general outlines, or a portion of the information acquired.

    “In this way, some declarative memories can become independent of the hippocampus; memories may become schematic, may lose details including various contextual features concerning the circumstances of their acquisition, and may be transformed to only hold the bare facts, general outlines, or a portion of the information acquired.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    TMR experiments lacking polysomnography leave room for doubt about what happened during sleep.

    “TMR experiments lacking polysomnography leave room for doubt about what happened during sleep.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    High-fidelity reactivation may support memory-guided planning during wake, whereas noisier, distributed reactivations may support generalization during sleep.

    “Accordingly, high-fidelity reactivation may support memory-guided planning during wake, whereas noisier, distributed reactivations may support generalization during sleep.”
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    Premisecitation

    The synaptic homeostasis hypothesis attributes the memory benefits of sleep to widespread downscaling of synaptic strength, thereby increasing the signal-to-noise ratio for memory retrieval.

    “An alternative account, the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, instead attributes the memory benefits of sleep to widespread downscaling of synaptic strength, thereby increasing the signal-to-noise ratio for memory retrieval (Tononi & Cirelli 2014).”
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    Premisenone given

    SOs are the hallmark of SWS.

    “SOs are the hallmark of SWS.”
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    Premisecitation

    The active systems consolidation hypothesis suggests that memory reactivation in the hippocampus during NREM sleep dictates changes in cortical networks.

    “A prominent account of sleep-based consolidation, sometimes termed the active systems consolidation hypothesis, suggests that memory reactivation in the hippocampus during NREM sleep dictates changes in cortical networks (Buzsáki 1998, Born et al. 2006).”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    During sleep, some of these same interpretive issues may be in play but to a lesser extent, as new episodic memories are not readily formed as they are during wake.

    “During sleep, some of these same interpretive issues may be in play but to a lesser extent, as new episodic memories are not readily formed as they are during wake.”
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    Premisecitation

    Sleep conditioning changed waking behavior in participants who wished to quit smoking; conditioned pairing of a noxious odor with smoking odor during N2 and REM reduced cigarettes smoked compared to controls.

    “Also, Arzi et al. (2014) showed that sleep conditioning changed waking behavior in participants who wished to quit smoking. Conditioned pairing of a noxious odor with the odor of smoking during stage N2 and REM reduced the number of cigarettes smoked compared to various control conditions.”
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    Premisecitation

    An fMRI olfactory TMR study found that scents associated with prior learning elicited learning-related brain activity during sleep, and this activity correlated with post-sleep spatial memory improvement.

    “An fMRI study using an olfactory TMR procedure found that scents associated with prior learning elicited learning-related patterns of brain activity during sleep, and this activity was correlated with post-sleep spatial memory improvement (Shanahan et al. 2018).”
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    • cites Shanahan et al. 2018

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    Premisecitation

    TMR efficacy depends on four factors: the cue must gain sufficient sensory processing without awakening; the cue-learned information association must be strong and specific; memory measures must be sensitive and reliable; and memories must be sufficiently strong for veridical reactivation but not so strong that improvement is impossible.

    “The efficacy of TMR cues undoubtedly depends on many factors. Four such factors are as follows: (a) The cue must gain sufficient sensory processing but not produce awakening; (b) the association between the cue and the learned information must be sufficiently strong and specific, so that the cue preferentially reactivates the intended information; (c) memory measures must be highly sensitive and”
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    Premisecitation

    In a numerical task with a hidden shortcut, following an 8-hour break including sleep or wake, only 35% of participants made the discovery; participants who slept were more likely to discover the shortcut than those who did not.

    “Following an 8-hour break including either sleep or wake, only 35% of the participants made this discovery. Participants who slept, compared to those who did not, were more likely to discover the shortcut, presumably by restructuring their memories of the task (Wagner et al. 2004).”
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    Premisecitation

    TMR has been shown to benefit skill learning, vocabulary learning, and word recall.

    “For example, TMR studies have shown a benefit for skill learning (Antony et al. 2012), vocabulary learning (Schreiner & Rasch 2015), and word recall (Fuentemilla et al. 2013).”
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    Interpretationnone given

    Processing memories during sleep can lead not only to strengthening particular memories but also to other sorts of memory modification.

    “Processing memories during sleep can lead not only to the strengthening of particular memories but also to other sorts of memory modification.”
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    Premisecitation

    In an fMRI study of motor learning, time in SWS correlated with greater hippocampal and caudate activity for cued versus uncued sequences, and time in REM correlated with increased cerebellar and cortical motor activity for cued versus uncued sequences.

    “Time in SWS correlated with greater hippocampal and caudate activity for cued versus uncued sequences in subsequent wake. Also, time in REM correlated with an increase in cerebellar and cortical motor activity for cued versus uncued sequences, suggesting that the effects of TMR during NREM sleep may depend on subsequent REM sleep as well.”
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    Study design and conductnone given

    Participants commonly exhibit no knowledge of whether cues were presented or which cues were presented, so no demand characteristics or strategic confounds are operative during post-sleep memory testing.

    “A further advantage of this type of design is that participants commonly exhibit no knowledge of whether cues were presented or which cues were presented, so no demand characteristics or strategic confounds are operative during post-sleep memory testing.”
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    Premisecitation

    Earlier dreams in the night are generally based on recent memory fragments, whereas later dreams incorporate memory fragments from an increasingly farther past.

    “Earlier dreams in the night are generally based on recent memory fragments, whereas later dreams incorporate memory fragments from an increasingly farther past (Roffwarg et al. 1978).”
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    Premisecitation

    In an fMRI spatial learning study using auditory TMR, the degree of memory benefit correlated with activity in the medial temporal lobe and cerebellum, and with parahippocampal-precuneus connectivity.

    “In an fMRI study of spatial learning using an auditory TMR procedure, the degree of memory benefit was found to be correlated with activity in the medial temporal lobe and the cerebellum, as well as with the degree of parahippocampal-precuneus connectivity, thus identifying several candidate measures of brain activity associated with sound-cued memory reactivation (van Dongen et al. 2012; see also”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    These two benefits correspond roughly to modifying declarative memories and nondeclarative memories, respectively.

    “These two benefits correspond roughly to modifying declarative memories and nondeclarative memories, respectively.”
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    Premisecitation

    Multiple investigators have championed the view that sleep aids the overnight resolution of emotional distress.

    “Although more research is certainly needed in this area, multiple investigators have championed the view that sleep aids the overnight resolution of emotional distress (e.g., Walker & van der Helm 2009).”
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    Premisecitation

    In PTSD, memory issues and sleep-related symptoms are prominent, and some PTSD symptoms have been attributed to excessive consolidation of negative memories.

    “In posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), memory issues are particularly prominent, as are sleep-related symptoms, and some PTSD symptoms have been attributed to an excessive consolidation of negative memories (Pitman et al. 2000).”
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    Premisecitation

    Unstable or disrupted REM sleep has been observed in PTSD and in insomnia.

    “This type of unstable or disrupted REM sleep has been observed in PTSD (Germain et al. 2008) and in insomnia (Riemann et al. 2012).”
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    Premisecitation

    In a TMR study comparing negative emotional and neutral pictures, total time in SWS predicted faster spatial recall responses for cued pictures only in the negative emotion condition; cuing did not influence spatial recall accuracy.

    “After sleep, an interesting pattern of results was revealed: Total time spent in SWS predicted faster spatial recall responses for cued pictures, but only in the negative emotion condition. Cuing did not influence spatial recall accuracy.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    If such dysfunction occurs, the outcome may extend to pervasive problems for well-being and mental health.

    “If so, the outcome may extend to pervasive problems for one’s well-being and mental health.”
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    Premisecitation

    The typical decline in slow-wave activity over a night of sleep is disrupted in depression and restored upon effective treatment.

    “This decline is disrupted in depression (Kupfer et al. 1986) and restored upon effective treatment (Jindal et al. 2003).”
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    Premisecitation

    Decreased connectivity between the medial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala was presumed to have caused greater amygdala activation and thus increased emotional reactivity.

    “Decreased connectivity between the medial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala was presumed to have caused greater amygdala activation and thus to have increased emotional reactivity.”
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    • cites Yoo et al. 2007

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    Premisecitation

    Insomnia is common in patients with depression.

    “Moreover, insomnia is common in patients with depression (Buysse et al. 2008, Manber et al. 2008).”
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    Premisecitation

    Other mood disorders such as social anxiety disorder can involve a negative memory bias as in depression, and the bias may be operative during sleep.

    “For example, other mood disorders such as social anxiety disorder can involve a negative memory bias as in depression (Glazier & Alden 2019), and the bias may be operative during sleep.”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    Memory work accomplished during sleep ideally supports adaptive memory function, but it can become maladaptive.

    “The memory work accomplished during sleep ideally supports adaptive memory function, but it can become maladaptive instead.”
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    Premisecitation

    In another study, sleep preserved the autonomic response to emotional stimuli after sleep, but reduced the autonomic response and valence ratings to emotional stimuli one week later.

    “In another study, sleep preserved the autonomic response to emotional stimuli after sleep, but it reduced the autonomic response as well as valence ratings to emotional stimuli one week later (Bolinger et al. 2019).”
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    Premisecitation

    MDD is characterized by impaired sleep continuity, lower-than-normal density of NREM sleep, and higher-than-normal density of REM sleep.

    “Major depressive disorder (MDD), for example, is characterized by impaired sleep continuity, lower-than-normal density of NREM sleep, and higher-than-normal density of REM sleep (Steiger & Pawlowski 2019).”
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    • cites Steiger & Pawlowski 2019

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Two benefits of sleep can be described as reactivating and reorganizing memories and creatively fine-tuning strategies for solving current problems.

    “Two benefits of sleep can thus be described as (a) reactivating and reorganizing memories and (b) creatively fine-tuning strategies in the service of solving current problems.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning

    Memory processing during sleep might not be working properly even with sufficient sleep and time for overnight processing.

    “Even if there is sufficient sleep and plenty of time for overnight memory processing, that processing may become dysfunctional.”
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    Interpretationcitation

    REM may be particularly important for processing emotional memories, but the evidence is mixed.

    “REM may be particularly important for processing emotional memories, but the evidence is mixed.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Individuals who suffer the most persistent distress following trauma or emotional insult may be those plagued by maladaptive memory processing during sleep; REM sleep punctuated by arousals could be a sign of this maladaptive sleep-thinking.

    “If we extend ideas from this experiment to patients, it could be that individuals who suffer the most persistent distress following trauma or emotional insult are those plagued by maladaptive memory processing during sleep; REM sleep punctuated by signs of arousal, presumably mediated by ascending noradrenergic systems, could be a sign of this specific type of maladaptive sleep-thinking.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    The number of spindles during SWS predicted the speed of recall responses, suggesting that sleep spindles mediate a selective enhancement of reactivated emotional memories.

    “The number of spindles during SWS also predicted the speed of recall responses, suggesting that sleep spindles mediate a selective enhancement of reactivated emotional memories.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cairney et al. 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In depression and anxiety, negative thoughts may be recirculated during sleep to the detriment of well-being.

    “In depression and anxiety, a patient’s day may be filled with excessive rumination and worry. Negative thoughts may be recirculated to the detriment of the person’s well-being.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sleep disturbances are reported in 50-80% of people with psychiatric disorders.

    “Sleep disturbances are reported in 50–80% of people with psychiatric disorders (Franzen & Buysse 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Franzen & Buysse 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    By one account, patients with MDD hold and empower negative representations about the self that bias memory processing toward negative experiences.

    “By one account, patients suffering from MDD hold and empower negative representations about the self that serve to bias memory processing toward negative experiences (Everaert et al. 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Everaert et al. 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Multiple investigators have emphasized the role of REM sleep, suggesting that its prominence in MDD serves to overemphasize the consolidation of negative memories.

    “Multiple investigators thinking along these lines have emphasized the role of REM sleep, suggesting that its prominence in MDD serves to overemphasize the consolidation of negative memories (Walker & van der Helm 2009, Harrington et al. 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Walker & van der Helm 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Harrington et al. 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Cartwright identified systematic relationships between the dreams of recently divorced individuals and their postdivorce coping strategies, and found better emotional adjustment the more dreaming was used in this fashion.

    “She identified systematic relationships between the dreams of recently divorced individuals and their postdivorce coping strategies, and critically, she found better emotional adjustment the more dreaming was used in this fashion.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cartwright (1990)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    A flaw in how memories are selected for reactivation or processed could cause normal nightly consolidation to go awry.

    “A flaw could develop in the way memories are selected for reactivation or in the way they are processed, with the consequence that the normal progress of nightly consolidation could go awry.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sleep disturbances immediately following traumatic experiences may serve as a protective mechanism to prevent consolidation of traumatic memories, though consolidation of emotional memories may span many nights.

    “Sleep disturbances immediately following traumatic experiences may serve as a protective mechanism to prevent the consolidation of traumatic memories, though consolidation of emotional memories may span many nights (Bolinger et al. 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bolinger et al. 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Optimal memory processing during sleep may elude psychiatric patients, and perhaps also those with less extreme psychological difficulties.

    “In this sense, optimal memory processing during sleep may elude psychiatric patients—and by extension, perhaps the same applies to those who experience less extreme psychological difficulties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Standard sleep physiology measures might be insensitive to subtle memory transactions.

    “Such measures might be insensitive to subtle memory transactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    If the mind is excessively agitated during sleep, one consequence could be objectively poor sleep.

    “To take an extreme example, if the mind is excessively agitated during sleep, incessantly revisiting negative thoughts and memories, one consequence could be objectively poor sleep.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A proliferation of negative memories may occur during sleep and may have negative psychological consequences.

    “Much as waking rumination can be harmful, a proliferation of negative memories may also occur during sleep and may likewise have negative psychological consequences.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Rumination may be just one variant of a larger category of maladaptive memory processing during sleep.

    “Broadening this idea, rumination may be just one variant of a larger category of maladaptive memory processing during sleep.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    It may be possible to adjust the memories we emphasize and maintain at the forefront of our psyche intentionally and strategically to reach self-improvement goals.

    “It may be possible to adjust the memories that we emphasize and maintain at the forefront of our psyche in an intentional and strategic way, in order to reach one’s goals of self-improvement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Memory processing during SWS could be very important, whether or not negative dreams are recalled after awakening.

    “With reference to the literature reviewed above, memory processing during SWS could be very important, whether or not negative dreams are recalled after awakening.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    These Implicit Association Test measures are not high in test-retest reliability and are poor predictors of discriminatory behavior.

    “These measures, however, are not high in test-retest reliability and are poor predictors of discriminatory behavior (Oswald et al. 2013).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Oswald et al. 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Change is possible based on what information we emphasize and recapitulate while awake, which is subject to further memory processing during sleep.

    “Change is possible based on what information we emphasize and recapitulate while awake, which is subject to further memory processing during sleep.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Changing a dream can be accomplished by using pre-sleep intentions and by using a variant of the TMR procedure to prompt particular dream content.

    “Changing a dream can be accomplished by using pre-sleep intentions and by using a variant of the TMR procedure to prompt particular dream content (Konkoly et al. 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Konkoly et al. 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overall quality of life mirrors both sleep quality and waking quality.

    “the quality of life reflects both”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sleep could look fairly normal electrophysiologically, but the nature of memory processing could still have unwanted consequences after sleep.

    “Alternatively, sleep could look fairly normal electrophysiologically, but the nature of the memory processing could still have unwanted consequences for the individual after sleep.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Ingrained attitudes may be difficult to change and difficult to measure.

    “Ingrained attitudes may be difficult to change and also difficult to measure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Mental content during the last few minutes before falling asleep might be particularly influential.

    “Mental content during the last few minutes before falling asleep might be particularly influential.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted), S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    It could be that overnight emotional turmoil is the price for subsequent waking benefits.

    “It could be that overnight emotional turmoil is the price we pay for subsequent waking benefits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Sleep with maladaptive memory processing can be detrimental, and it could be helpful to change it, for instance through counter-reactivation or inception of positive memories, feelings, or concepts.

    “We suggest that sleep with maladaptive memory processing can be detrimental, in which case it could be helpful to change it, for instance through the counter-reactivation or inception of positive memories, feelings, or concepts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Given that memory processing during sleep is modifiable, sleep-based consolidation affords the opportunity not just for improving memory function but also for restructuring the self.

    “Given that memory processing during sleep is modifiable, sleep-based consolidation affords the opportunity not just for improving memory function but also for restructuring the self.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    People may overlook the part of life spent asleep because it is largely hidden from view.

    “We may tend to ignore the portion of our lives occupied by sleep because it is predominantly out of view (like the dark side of the moon)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sleep and waking cognition influence each other in both directions.

    “we acknowledge that the link between sleep and waking cognition is bidirectional”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    In both maladaptive sleep with or without obvious signs of sleep disruption, there could be harmful ramifications for the waking mind.

    “In both cases—maladaptive sleep with or without obvious signs of sleep disruption—there could be harmful ramifications for the waking mind.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Sleep quality mirrors the cognitive activity that was recently engaged while awake.

    “The quality of sleep reflects cognitive activity recently engaged while awake”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Sleep may help with adaptive processing of traumatic memories.

    “Such exploration must proceed together with research aimed at advancing our understanding of sleep, given that sleep may help with adaptive processing of traumatic memories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Waking quality mirrors consolidation and other cognitive processes that occur during sleep.

    “the quality of wakefulness, in turn, reflects consolidation and other cognitive activity engaged while asleep”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A major factor that may influence sleep quality is the reemergence of negative memories.

    “A major factor that may influence sleep quality is the reemergence of negative memories.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sleep-based rumination might be quite prevalent, regardless of clinical diagnosis.

    “Sleep-based rumination might be quite prevalent, regardless of clinical diagnosis.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Positive waking thoughts could produce positive sleeping thoughts.

    “One tactic would be to control pre-sleep mental activity, in that positive waking thoughts could produce positive sleeping thoughts.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Grasping the two-way relationships between sleep and wakefulness, and adopting novel means of improving sleep, can improve the waking mind.

    “By understanding the mutual relationships between sleep and wake, and by embracing innovative ways to improve sleep, we can change the waking mind for the better.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
85 of 85

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Sleep plays a critical role in memory consolidation.

    “Bringing together the critical role of sleep in memory consolidation with the fact that memory is used for many cognitive functions leads to the following further inference: Sleep disturbances may have far-reaching cognitive consequences.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The cortical-hippocampal-cortical loop theory of reactivation-dependent memory consolidation is correct.

    “These results were thus used to support the cortical-hippocampal-cortical loop theory of reactivation-dependent memory consolidation outlined above.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Sleep spindles are unlikely to occur in close succession and are typically separated by 3–6 s.

    “Spindles are unlikely to occur in close succession and are typically separated by 3–6 s.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The primary candidate mechanism for sleep's memory benefit is an iterative reactivation and strengthening of recently formed memory networks in the sleeping brain.

    “The primary candidate mechanism for this effect is an iterative reactivation and strengthening of recently formed memory networks in the sleeping brain [13, 15–17].”

    From Constructive episodic simulation in dreams (2022) · cites this paper as [17]

    The sections “Memory Consolidation at a Systems Level” and “Physiology of Memory Consolidation During Sleep” describe repeated replay of recent experiences as a proposed way to strengthen memories. The review calls reactivation a prominent account, but also discusses synaptic downscaling as an alternative that may contribute alongside it; it does not establish reactivation as the primary mechanism. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Müller G, 1900, Experimentelle Beiträge zur Lehre vom Gedächtnis [Experimental contributions to the theory of memory]
  2. Riemann D, 2012, Pharmacopsychiatry, 45, 167
  3. Walker MP., 2017, Why We Sleep: Unlocking the Power of Sleep and Dreams
  4. Westerberg CE, 2020, Highly superior autobiographical memory is associated with superior sleep physiology

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Paller, K. A., Creery, J. D., & Schechtman, E.
Affiliations
Northwestern University (US)
ORCID
Venue
Annual Review of Psychology
Publisher
Annual Reviews
Published
2021-01-04
Volume
72
Issue
1
Pages
123-150
ISSN
  • 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
  • 1545-2085
DOI
10.1146/annurev-psych-010419-050815
PMC
PMC7983127
OpenAlex
W3087541990
Semantic Scholar
de5c4357e615a760acfe8d41e4dab89d63b1353a
Cited by
150
References
168
Citations by year
2026: 21 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 3
FWCI
2.09
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
Funders
  • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (T32HL007909)
  • National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS112942, T32NS047987)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
Keywords
sleep-dependent memory consolidation, rumination, worry, emotion regulation, creativity, problem solving, forgetting, self-construction
MeSH terms
Cognition, Humans, Memory, Mental Health, Mental Recall, Sleep

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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