The nature and transfer of cognitive skills
Abstract
This article presents the primitive elements theory of cognitive skills. The central idea is that skills are broken down into primitive information processing elements that move and compare single pieces of information regardless of the specific content of this information. Several of these primitive elements are necessary for even a single step in a task. A learning process therefore combines the elements in increasingly larger, but still context-independent, units. If there is overlap between tasks, this means the larger units learned for 1 task can be reused for the other task, producing transfer. The theory makes it possible to construct detailed process models of 2 classic transfer studies in the literature: a study of transfer in text editors and 1 in arithmetic. I show that the approach produces better fits of the amount of transfer than Singley and Anderson's (1985) identical productions model. The theory also offers explanations for far transfer, in which the 2 tasks have no surface characteristics in common, which I demonstrate with 2 models in the domain of cognitive control, where training on either task-switching or working memory control led to an improvement of performance on other control tasks. The theory can therefore help evaluate the effectiveness of cognitive training that has the goal to improve general cognitive abilities.
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Theories predicting far transfer are not supported.
“Conversely, those theories predicting far transfer are not supported (e.g., Jaeggi et al., 2008;Taatgen, 2013Taatgen, , 2016)).”
From Working memory training does not enhance older adults' cognitive skills: A comprehensive meta-analysis (2019) · cites this paper as Taatgen, 2013
In ‘Predictive Power and Studies That Do Not Show Transfer’ (p. 30), Taatgen says the theory has not yet proved its predictive power because it has modeled existing data rather than made predictions. But the paper also describes successful far-transfer studies (pp. 3, 30) and proposes conditions under which far transfer can occur. It does not support the categorical claim that theories predicting far transfer are unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredTransfer can be conceptualized as the consequence of acquiring complex cognitive skills that can be applied to untrained tasks with some overlap.
“An alternative proposal conceptualizes transfer as the consequence of acquiring complex cognitive skills that can be applied to untrained tasks with some overlap (Gathercole et al., 2019;Taatgen, 2013).”
From Please don't stop the music: A meta-analysis of the cognitive and academic benefits of instrumental musical training in childhood and adolescence (2022) · cites this paper as Taatgen, 2013
Primitive elements theory places no limits on the transferability of task-general skills across tasks.
“Primitive elements theory places no limits on the transferability of task-general skills across tasks: transfer may in principle occur for any tasks requiring common higher-order processes such as proactive control.”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Taatgen (2013)
Transfer occurs when task-general skills are consistent, even if tasks differ in low-level task features.
“Transfer occurs when the task-general skills are consistent, even if tasks differ in low-level task features.”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Taatgen (2013)
Beyond the near/far distinction, there is little understanding of the cognitive constraints on transfer.
“Second, beyond this broad distinction, there is little understanding of the cognitive constraints on transfer (Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2010; Simons et al., 2016; Taatgen, 2013).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Taatgen, 2013
This learning follows well-established principles of complex skill acquisition.
“It is a form of learning that follows well-established principles of the acquisition of complex skills (Anderson, 1982; Fitts & Posner, 1967; Taatgen, 2013).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Taatgen, 2013
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Working memory training involves learning new skills
Gathercole, S. E., Dunning, D. L., Holmes, J., & Norris, D. (2019) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2018.10.003 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
“Taatgen (2013) drew a similar distinction between low-level elements of production rules specific to a particular task and the task-general skills that alter the flow of information across the production system.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWorking memory training in typically developing children: A multilevel meta-analysis
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. (2020) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-019-01681-y · Cited by 131 · see citing works
“Finally, Taatgen (2013, 2016) has claimed that enhancement in domain-general cognitive skills may be a by-product of the acquisition of domain-specific skills.”
BackgroundResultRomán-Caballero, R., Vadillo, M. A., Trainor, L. J., & Lupiáñez, J. (2022) · Educational Research Review · doi:10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100436 · Cited by 118 · see citing works
Oei, A. C., & Patterson, M. D. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00113 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Schmidt, M., Mavilidi, M. F., Singh, A., & Englert, C. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101908 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The role of strategy use in working memory training outcomes
Fellman, D., Jylkkä, J., Waris, O., Soveri, A., Ritakallio, L., Haga, S., Salmi, J., Nyman, T. J., & Laine, M. (2020) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2019.104064 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Sala, G., Aksayli, N. D., Tatlidil, K. S., Gondo, Y., & Gobet, F. (2019) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101386 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Can short-term memory be trained?
Norris, D. G., Hall, J., & Gathercole, S. E. (2019) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-019-00901-z · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Theoretical Models of Training and Transfer Effects
Taatgen, N. A. (2016) · Cognitive Training · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42662-4_3 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Self-citationRoque-Gutierrez, E., & Ibbotson, P. (2023) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2022.105593 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Fu, J., Zhou, Y., Yuan, M., & Cai, Y. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02994-5
“Moreover, process-specific theory argues that transfer occurs only when training targets cognitive processes that are shared across tasks, providing a critical perspective to explain null transfer outcomes and prompting mechanistic investigation in this field (Dahlin et al., 2008a; Taatgen, 2013).”
- Authors
- Taatgen, N. A.
- Affiliations
- University of Groningen (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Taatgen, Niels A.
- ORCID
- Taatgen, Niels A.
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2013-07
- Volume
- 120
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 439-471
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2154635459
- Cited by
- 288
- References
- 102
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 25 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 36 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 11 · 2014: 19 · 2013: 5
- FWCI
- 26.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- European Research Council (283597)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Keywords
- cognitive skills, transfer of learning, information processing, task overlap, far transfer, cognitive control, task switching, cognitive training, process model
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Humans, Models, Psychological, Psychological Theory, Transfer, Psychology, Executive Function
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