Are visual threats prioritized without awareness? A critical review and meta-analysis involving 3 behavioral paradigms and 2696 observers
Abstract
Given capacity limits, only a subset of stimuli give rise to a conscious percept. Neurocognitive models suggest that humans have evolved mechanisms that operate without awareness and prioritize threatening stimuli over neutral stimuli in subsequent perception. In this meta-analysis, we review evidence for this 'standard hypothesis' emanating from 3 widely used, but rather different experimental paradigms that have been used to manipulate awareness. We found a small pooled threat-bias effect in the masked visual probe paradigm, a medium effect in the binocular rivalry paradigm and highly inconsistent effects in the breaking continuous flash suppression paradigm. Substantial heterogeneity was explained by the stimulus type: the only threat stimuli that were robustly prioritized across all 3 paradigms were fearful faces. Meta regression revealed that anxiety may modulate threat-biases, but only under specific presentation conditions. We also found that insufficiently rigorous awareness measures, inadequate control of response biases and low level confounds may undermine claims of genuine unconscious threat processing. Considering the data together, we suggest that uncritical acceptance of the standard hypothesis is premature: current behavioral evidence for threat-sensitive visual processing that operates without awareness is weak. (PsycINFO Database Record
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ABs in attention-orienting may reflect both salience-driven and goal-directed processes, including reflexive orienting and strategic maintenance, suppression, or avoidance of threat.
“ABs in attention-orienting (e.g., on a visual probe task) may also reflect both salience-driven and goal-directed processes.”
From Anxiety and Threat-Related Attention: Cognitive-Motivational Framework and Treatment (2018) · cites this paper as [34]
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- Authors
- Hedger, N., Gray, K. L. H., Garner, M., & Adams, W. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Southampton (GB)
- University of Reading (GB)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 142
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 934-968
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2279597820
- Cited by
- 115
- References
- 237
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 3
- FWCI
- 6.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CentAUR (University of Reading) (acceptedVersion)
- ePrints Soton (University of Southampton) (acceptedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Visual Attention and Saliency Detection
- Keywords
- threat bias, unconscious processes, visual awareness, binocular rivalry, continuous flash suppression, fearful faces, anxiety, response bias, meta-regression
- MeSH terms
- Facial Recognition, Anxiety, Awareness, Facial Expression, Fear, Humans, Unconscious, Psychology, Visual Perception, Bias
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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