Cited by 2,622Mental Health Treatment and AccessChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentGender Roles and Identity Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 272 of the 276 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 13 of the 92 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms

Open access

Salk, Rachel H., Hyde, Janet S., Abramson, Lyn Y.·2017·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/bul0000102PMC PMC5532074

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Abstract

In 2 meta-analyses on gender differences in depression in nationally representative samples, we advance previous work by including studies of depression diagnoses and symptoms to (a) estimate the magnitude of the gender difference in depression across a wide array of nations and ages; (b) use a developmental perspective to elucidate patterns of gender differences across the life span; and (c) incorporate additional theory-driven moderators (e.g., gender equity). For major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms, respectively, we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national data sets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations. Overall, odds ratio (OR) = 1.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.88, 2.03], and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29]. Age was the strongest predictor of effect size. The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12. For both meta-analyses, the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13-15, and d = 0.47 for age 16) but then declined and remained stable in adulthood. Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms. The gender difference in depression represents a health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in men should not be overlooked. (PsycINFO Database Record

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Crossref · 10.1037/bul0000102

Cites

272 of 272 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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Claims the paper makes

13 of 92 cited sources checked · 9 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“odds ratios (ORs, female/male) for 12-month major depressive episode (MDE1) ranged from 1.2 to 2.7 across 18 countries and 89,037 participants”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results table of sociodemographic associations reports a female-to-male odds ratio of 1.2 for 12-month MDE in China, and the Sociodemographic factors text reports 2.7 in Spain. Methods > Sampling and procedure states that the study included 18 countries and 89,037 participants. The 1.2 estimate was not statistically significant, but the claim does not say that every odds ratio was significant. (LLM, conf=0.94)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedn = 89,037
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited findings in adulthood are inconsistent with respect to both the magnitude and direction of the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Angst et al., 2002 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mirowsky, 1996 source
- Partly supported
  The Results (Depression) and Discussion describe variation by country and age, including a slight reversal in Japan that was not statistically significant. But the paper studies middle and older ages, not adulthood broadly, and its Discussion says the literature generally finds higher depression prevalence in women from young adulthood through early old age. It does not support characterizing the limited findings across adulthood as inconsistent in direction. (LLM, conf=0.84)
  cites Oksuzyan et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited research on ethnicity, gender, and depression in the United States does not indicate variation by ethnicity in the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Partly supported
  The Results section (‘Tests of interaction in NESARC data’; page unavailable) reports a non-significant race × sex interaction (P = 0.89), consistent with no detected Black–White variation in the sex difference in lifetime major depression. The study tests Black and White respondents, not ethnicity broadly, and says it lacked sufficient power to test the interaction for 12-month depression. (LLM, conf=0.86)
  cites Barnes et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Breslau et al., 2006
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Oquendo et al., 2001 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
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Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“This absence of any substantial effect for nation-level wealth is consistent with other research (Bromet et al., 2011) indicating that economic development is not a major factor in cross-national variations in the magnitude of gender differences in depression.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results (Sociodemographic factors) report that the association between gender and major depressive episode did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). This supports the claim as an interpretation of the paper's income-group comparison, rather than proof that economic development has no effect. (LLM, conf=0.90)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.

Show all 107 claims

Probably not a substantial claim. 72
It may state two separate claims as one. 101
Borderline: one of the tests for a substantial claim is unclear. 1
Not yet classified. 1

Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“A study including 18 countries from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys (Kessler & Usten, 2008) reported that the relationship between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results (Sociodemographic factors) analyze 12-month MDE across 18 countries and explicitly report that the association between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). (LLM, conf=0.95)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, findings also suggest that the 2:1 ratio is not universal and may vary substantially across nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results (Sociodemographic factors; page unavailable) report that women were twice as likely as men to have a major depressive episode on average, but country-specific odds ratios varied. The difference was not statistically significant in three of the 18 countries, supporting the hedged claim that the 2:1 ratio is not universal. (LLM, conf=0.91)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In the vast majority of epidemiological reports on adults, women have higher rates of major depression compared to men; on average, the ratio is 2:1”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Andrade et al., 2003 source
- Supported
  The Background states that almost all studies find an association between gender and depression and that women have a twofold increased risk of major depressive episode. The Results (Sociodemographic factors) likewise report that women were, on average, twice as likely as men to have an episode across the countries studied. (LLM, conf=0.94)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Other widely held beliefs about gender differences, such as the gender difference in math performance, have sometimes been found to be inaccurate when the data are meta-analyzed”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008
- Supported
  The Abstract reports that a meta-analysis of 242 studies found no overall gender difference in mathematics performance (d = .05). The Gender and Mathematics Performance section says stereotypes of female inferiority contrast with the performance data, supporting the claim that meta-analysis has found this widely held belief inaccurate. (LLM, conf=0.93)
  cites Lindberg et al., 2010 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“there is increased recognition of the validity (e.g., Markon, Chmielewski, & Miller, 2011) and value (Cuthbert & Insel, 2013) of dimensional assessments, as well as the impairment associated with sub-threshold levels of symptoms that do not meet diagnostic criteria.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Markon et al., 2011 source
- Supported
  The citation is attached specifically to the value of dimensional assessments, not to their validity or the separate statement about impairment from sub-threshold symptoms. In “The seven pillars,” the paper endorses a dimensional approach and explains its value for studying mild psychopathology and informing intervention cut-points. (LLM, conf=0.91)
  cites Cuthbert & Insel, 2013 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Two large multi-nation studies have reported conflicting results, finding that the gender gap in depression was smaller and larger, respectively, in low gender-equity countries compared to high gender-equity countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007 source
- Partly supported
  The Discussion reports the conflicting finding that Hopcroft and Bradley found a larger depression gender gap in high-equality countries, while this paper's results were more consistent with equality reducing women's disadvantage. But the Results say the overall interaction between gender and equality was not significant; a smaller gap at higher equality appeared only in certain subgroups and for certain measures. The sentence overstates this paper's finding as a general cross-country result. (LLM, conf=0.87)
  cites Van de Velde et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
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It may state two separate claims as one.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Seedat and colleagues (2009) found a significant narrowing in the gender difference in depression in recent cohorts.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Abstract states that gender differences narrowed significantly in recent cohorts for major depressive disorder. The COMMENT section likewise reports significantly smaller gender differences in major depression in more recent cohorts. (LLM, conf=0.94)
  cites Seedat et al., 2009 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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Probably not a substantial claim.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“One latent growth curve analysis indicated that girls’ depression symptoms accelerated early in adolescence and then leveled off, whereas boys’ symptom levels accelerated in late adolescence (Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016), consistent with the first possibility above.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results section’s latent growth curve analysis says girls’ depression scores increased and then leveled off, while boys’ scores were initially low and increased more rapidly at later ages. The Discussion likewise describes girls’ symptoms accelerating early in adolescence and boys’ symptoms accelerating later. (LLM, conf=0.95)
  cites Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“On the face of it, greater contraceptive prevalence should indicate women’s greater control over reproduction and a lower rate of unwanted pregnancies, which are a risk factor for depression (e.g., Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Partly supported
  The Discussion (Main Findings) reports that women with unwanted pregnancies had a higher risk of postpartum depression than women with intended pregnancies. The claim says “depression” without limiting it to the postpartum period; the paper also cautions in the Discussion (Interpretation) that it cannot establish a causal relationship. The contraceptive-prevalence premise appears to be the citing authors’ framing, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
  cites Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Importantly, there was not a range restriction for the literacy variable (ratios ranged from .31 to 1.07), which can have substantial negative skew (Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For both meta-analyses, the effect size peaked in adolescence but then declined and remained stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
  “Our results provide powerful evidence that the gender difference in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms peaks in adolescence, with the gender gap in diagnoses emerging earlier than previously thought (OR = 2.37 at age 12). The gender gap then narrows and remains stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously and has important implications for both theory and”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“However, other studies have found smaller gender differences in nations with more gender inequality. This pattern has been found for outcomes such as self-reports of personality traits and attitudes about mathematics”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest et al., 2010 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“it was limited to the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1985) scale and samples of 8- to 16-year-old participants in the United States and Canada (n = 43,916).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Kovacs, 1985
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 43,916
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The theory predicts that larger gender differences should be observed in nations with more gender inequality.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Eagly & Wood, 1999
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Hankin and colleagues (1998) found that the gender difference in clinical depression emerged by ages 13–15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hankin et al., 1998 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to the theory, a society’s division of labor by gender drives all other psychological gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Eagly & Wood, 1999
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Theories of developmental psychopathology contend that there are multiple pathways to the gender difference in depression involving combinations and interactions of risk factors that span multiple levels of analysis”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“there is no gender difference or even a somewhat higher prevalence of depression among boys than girls in childhood”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Avenevoli et al., 2008
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Evidence for this theory exists for several psychological gender differences, including mate preferences, mathematics performance, and some aspects of sexuality”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Eagly & Wood, 1999
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest et al., 2010 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Petersen & Hyde, 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“To the extent that women report higher rates of violent victimization, this may contribute to the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Koss et al., 1994 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The female preponderance in depression is thought to emerge by ages 13–15”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hankin et al., 1998 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wichstrøm, 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“gender inequality is linked to discrimination against women, which may contribute to the gender difference”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Belle & Doucet, 2003 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theories highlight how specific vulnerability factors come on-line at critical developmental periods in adolescence and/or interact with stressors in adolescence to produce the gender difference in adolescence”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008b
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“adolescents and adults with subthreshold depression symptoms and minor depression still experience significant impairment (e.g., Lewinsohn, Solomon, Seeley, & Zeiss, 2000) and are at elevated risk for later development of major depression and suicidal behaviors”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn et al., 2000 source
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Cuijpers et al., 2004
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fergusson et al., 2005 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The extant literature indicates that the prevalence of major depression in the United States varies both by gender and by ethnicity”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Breslau et al., 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One recent narrative review concluded that internalizing problems for girls increased from the late 20th century to the 21st century”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bor et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“we follow MARS reporting standards”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites American Psychological Association Publications and Communications Board, 2008
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They argued that the strongest scientific evidence about gender differences does not come from small studies of convenience samples, but instead comes from larger studies based on representative samples of populations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges & Nowell, 1995 source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“age of the participants (measured on a continuous scale, using the reported mean or the midpoint of the age range), r = .99”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
  “country, κ (kappa) = 1.00”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
  “predominant (≥ 85%) ethnic group of participants (Caucasian, African American, Asian American, Hispanic, Native American, other, mixed, or unreported), κ = 1.00; and (d) year of data collection, r = 1.00.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a meta-analysis of gender differences in self-esteem found a small difference favoring Caucasian males over Caucasian females, d = 0.20, but no gender difference for African American samples, d = −0.04”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kling et al., 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Raw effect sizes were corrected for bias (i.e., the upward-bias of effect sizes among small samples; Hedges, 1981); however, most correction factors were close to 1.0 given the large sample sizes.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Effect Size Computation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges, 1981 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The Hedges and Nowell strategy has since been used in other meta-analyses on gender differences in cognitive abilities”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest et al., 2010 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Reilly et al., 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“These results differ from those of Hankin and colleagues (1998), who found that that the gender gap in major depression emerged between ages 13 and 15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hankin and colleagues (1998)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, early puberty is disadvantageous for girls but not boys, for outcomes such as depression (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A third possibility results from the observation that depression is a recurrent disorder (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, temperament, present from infancy and early childhood, predicts later depression (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, in the 21st century women constitute 47% of the U.S. labor force, compared to 30% in 1950 (Costello et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Costello et al., 2003
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Research suggests that negative cognitive style may not emerge as a stable trait until ages 9.5 to 12.5, and the cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction does not become a reliable predictor of depression until ages 13.5 to 14.5, i.e., in early adolescence (Cole et al., 2008).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole et al., 2008 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus the gender difference in depression is created at least in part by girls who go through puberty early, because of any of several processes, such as early-puberty girls encountering more peer sexual harassment than boys and on-time girls (Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, the typical assessment of symptoms often represents a short period of time, such as a week, whereas diagnoses involve aggregation over longer periods, often a year (Haeffel et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Comparison of the Diagnosis and Symptom Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Haeffel et al., 2003 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As noted earlier, theories guided by developmental psychopathology have focused on explaining the emergence of the gender difference in adolescence (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b), but did not attend to development across adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008b
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another theoretical account rests on cognitive vulnerability-stress models of depression, which have been well supported in samples of college students and adults (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008b
Strength:boosted· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given that depression is a global health priority (World Health Organization, 2016), it is imperative to understand disparities in depression and which subgroups are most in need of services.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites World Health Organization, 2016
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Results indicated high agreement between the two; for major depressive disorder, kappa = 0.97, with 99.7% agreement between the two sources (see also Brugha, Nienhuis, Bagchi, Smith, & Meltzer, 1999).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wittchen, Robins, Cottler, Sartorius, Burke, & Regier, 1991 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brugha, Nienhuis, Bagchi, Smith, & Meltzer, 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, perhaps counterintuitively, gender differences were larger in nations with more gender equity, a finding that was consistent across three indicators.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Yet, as noted in the introduction, some primary studies have found similar patterns to ours regarding gender differences and gender equity, for outcomes such as self-construals (Guimond et al., 2007) and emotion (Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Guimond et al., 2007 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Guimond and colleagues (2007) proposed that gender differences in self-construals are larger in contexts in which individuals make intergroup social comparisons, e.g., when they compare themselves to an out-group such as the other gender.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Guimond and colleagues (2007)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
In the paper
“One early review concluded that the gender difference in depression is a real difference and not a measurement artifact (Weissman & Klerman, 1977).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Weissman & Klerman, 1977
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The emphasis on adolescents is particularly important because depression is a recurring disorder, so an episode in adolescence can predispose the individual to later episodes (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.

146 of 146

The paper relies on this without support.
The existing literature on gender differences in depression had not been meta-analytically synthesized before this study.
“this large body of sometimes inconsistent research has yet to be synthesized meta-analytically.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
“We selected domain-specific indicators of gender equity (rather than composite indicators) that should, theoretically, be tied to gender differences in depression”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The mixed-effects model used for moderator analyses assumes that variability among effect sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (error variance).
“The mixed-effects model assumes that variability among effects sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (i.e., error variance).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
“For major depression diagnoses, variability in the gender difference in depression was linked to measures of national wealth and gender equity.”

5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

Consistentt(299) = 1961.63reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(299) = 1961.63, p < .001”
Consistentt(412) = 9542.5reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(412) = 9542.50, p < .001”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

Conflicting percentages for researcher-supplied symptom data
Minor
The results state that 357 of 413 symptom effect sizes (86%) came from data obtained from authors, but the limitations section gives 76% for the same category.

1 of 1

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: the PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & for the PRISMA Group (2009) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.b2535 · Cited by 83,823
Using multivariate statistics
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1983) · Cited by 79,882
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,417
The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population
Radloff, L. S. (1977) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662167700100306 · Cited by 53,267
The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x · Cited by 47,139 · cited 2×
“…Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977); SCL-D Symptom Checklist-90- Depression items (Derogatis et al., 1973); HADS-D Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale- Depression subscale (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983); RADS Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (Reynolds, 1986); EURO-D (Prince et al., 1999); MHI-D…”
The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x · Cited by 44,910 · cited 2×
“The OR (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001) was the effect size used for the meta-analysis on major depression diagnoses; Cohen’s d (Cohen, Table 2 (continued) Study d Country NM NF Measure Year Age Sample E F von Soest et al. (2014)a .38 Norway 610 653 SCL-D 2010 14 Young in Norway 2 von Soest et al. (2014)a .52 Norway 573 695 SC…”
An inventory for measuring depression
BECK, A. T. (1961) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004 · Cited by 38,032 · cited 2×
“…American, 4 85% Asian American, 5 85% Hispanic; F focus of article: 1 gender, 2 depression, 3 other; a received additional data from author; BDI Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1961, 1996); DMI Depressive Mood Inventory (see Abebe et al., 2016); CDI Children’s Depression Inventory…”
Untitled work
(1992) · PubMed · Cited by 33,716
Untitled work
(1998) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · Cited by 19,139

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Show all 276 references

4 of the 276 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

Items 201–300 of 2,611

Bullying and Depression in Youth with ADHD: A Systematic Review
Simmons, J. A., & Antshel, K. M. (2020) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-020-09586-x · Cited by 59
Socio-Demographic Variables, Fear of COVID-19, Anxiety, and Depression: Prevalence, Relationships and Explanatory Model in the General Population of Seven Latin American Countries
Caycho‐Rodríguez, T., Tomás, J. M., Vilca, L. W., Carbajal‐León, C., Cervigni, M., Gallegos, M., Martino, P., Barés, I., Calandra, M., Anacona, C. A. R., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.695989 · Cited by 60
Sex-specific neural responses to acute psychosocial stress in depression
Dong, D., Ironside, M., Belleau, E. L., Sun, X., Cheng, C., Xiong, G., Nickerson, L. D., Wang, X., Yao, S., & Pizzagalli, D. A. (2022) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-021-01768-y · Cited by 52
“Critically, meta-analytic results demonstrate that women are approximately twice as likely to be diagnosed with MDD than men [4], highlighting that sex is a critical factor in the etiology and pathophysiology of MDD [5].”
Background
Mortality and morbidity in ageing men: Biology, Lifestyle and Environment
Zhao, E., & Crimmins, E. M. (2022) · Reviews in Endocrine and Metabolic Disorders · doi:10.1007/s11154-022-09737-6 · Cited by 61
“Meta-analyses have shown some support for this speculation with findings that gender difference in depression usually peaks in adolescence, which is possibly due to the fact that girls typically enter puberty earlier than boys and thus experience depressive symptoms along with the hormonal changes earlier [90].”
Background
Sex differences in the association between chronotype and risk of depression
Kim, K. M., Han, S. M., Heo, K., Kim, W., & Chu, M. K. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-75724-z · Cited by 48
Women's mental health in times of COVID-19
Souza, A. S. R., Souza, G. F. D. A., & Praciano, G. D. A. F. (2020) · Revista Brasileira de Saúde Materno Infantil · doi:10.1590/1806-93042020000300001 · Cited by 48
Intolerance of uncertainty and mental health in Brazil during the Covid-19 pandemic
Seco Ferreira, D. C., Lisboa Oliveira, W., Costa Delabrida, Z. N., Faro, A., Cerqueira-Santos, E., Universidade Federal de Sergipe, B., Universidade Federal de Sergipe, B., Universidade Federal de Sergipe, B., Universidade Federal de Sergipe, B., & Universidade Federal de Sergipe, B. (2020) · Suma Psicológica · doi:10.14349/sumapsi.2020.v27.n1.8 · Cited by 47
Subjective social status and health during high school and young adulthood.
Rahal, D., Huynh, V. W., Cole, S. W., Seeman, T. E., & Fuligni, A. J. (2020) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000919 · Cited by 52
Dose–response association of total sedentary behaviour and television watching with risk of depression in adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Zhou, Q., Guo, C., Yang, X., & He, N. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.098 · Cited by 49
Child and Adolescent Suicidal Ideation and Suicide Attempts: Evidence from the Healthcare Cost and Utilization Project
Carbone, J. T., Holzer, K. J., & Vaughn, M. G. (2019) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2018.10.017 · Cited by 47
Association between short-term exposure to ambient air pollution and hospital visits for depression in China
Wei, F., Wu, M., Qian, S., Li, D., Jin, M., Wang, J., Shui, L., Lin, H., Tang, M., & Chen, K. (2020) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138207 · Cited by 48
The prevalence of depression in degenerative spine disease patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Chen, Z., Luo, R., Yang, Y., & Xiang, Z. (2021) · European Spine Journal · doi:10.1007/s00586-021-06977-z · Cited by 47
“Depression is a global health priority and accounts for fully 10 per cent of the total non-fatal disease burden worldwide [8].”
Background
The Gender Well-Being Gap
Blanchflower, D. G., & Bryson, A. (2024) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-024-03334-7 · Cited by 84
Sex differences in clinically diagnosed psychiatric disorders over the lifespan: a nationwide register-based study in Sweden
Yang, Y., Fang, F., Arnberg, F. K., Kuja‐Halkola, R., D'Onofrio, B. M., Larsson, H., Brikell, I., Chang, Z., Andreassen, O. A., Lichtenstein, P., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Regional Health - Europe · doi:10.1016/j.lanepe.2024.101105 · Cited by 55
“Only few studies investigated sex differences in depression and schizophrenia over the lifespan, 26,27 whereas the magnitude of difference has not been estimated in terms of incidence rate.”
Influential
Frequent police stops, parental incarceration and mental health: results among US non-Hispanic Black and White adolescent girls and boys
Jahn, J. L., Agénor, M., Chen, J. T., & Krieger, N. (2020) · Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech-2020-214578 · Cited by 47
Research on the Relationship between Chinese Elderly Health Status, Social Security, and Depression
Shao, M., Chen, J., & Ma, C. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19127496 · Cited by 45
“These differences result in women being more susceptible to depression than men [23].”
Background
The mental health of Asian American adolescents and young adults amid the rise of anti-Asian racism
Huỳnh, J., Chien, J., Nguyen, A. T., Honda, D., Cho, E. E., Xiong, M., Doan, T. T., & Ngo, T. D. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.958517 · Cited by 45
“Furthermore, our results on depression severity by gender, highlight and endorse the gendered disparities in mental health and experiences of violence (46).”
Psychometric evaluation and community norms of the PHQ-9, based on a representative German sample
Kliem, S., Sachser, C., Lohmann, A., Baier, D., Brähler, E., Gündel, H., & Fegert, J. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1483782 · Cited by 48
Gender-specific prevalence and associated factors of major depressive disorder and generalized anxiety disorder in a Chinese rural population: the Henan rural cohort study
Luo, Z., Li, Y., Hou, Y., Liu, X., Jiang, J., Wang, Y., Liu, X., Qiao, D., Dong, X., Li, R., et al. (2019) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-019-8086-1 · Cited by 45
Investigating the Impact of Job Loss and Decreased Work Hours on Physical and Mental Health Outcomes Among US Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Guerin, R. J., Barile, J. P., Thompson, W., McKnight-Eily, L. R., & Okun, A. H. (2021) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000002288 · Cited by 48
“In the United States, extensive evidence indicates that more depressive symptoms are commonly reported among females than males.(27,37) Holingue et al(1) also demonstrate (from results of a national survey fielded in March 2020) that females compared with males are experiencing significantly higher depression and anxi…”
Result
Parental socialization of positive affect, adolescent positive affect regulation, and adolescent girls’ depression in India
Raval, V. V., Luebbe, A. M., & Sathiyaseelan, A. (2019) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12325 · Cited by 44
Psychobiological markers of allostatic load in depressed and nondepressed mothers and their adolescent offspring
Nelson, B. W., Sheeber, L., Pfeifer, J. H., & Allen, N. B. (2020) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13264 · Cited by 46
Exposure to black carbon is associated with symptoms of depression: A retrospective cohort study in college students
Shen, M., Gu, X., Li, S., Yu, Y., Zou, B., & Chen, X. (2021) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106870 · Cited by 44
Women's Health: Population Patterns and Social Determinants
Short, S. E., & Zacher, M. L. (2022) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-030320-034200 · Cited by 52
Assessment of Population Well-Being With the Mental Health Quotient (MHQ): Development and Usability Study
Newson, J. J., & Thiagarajan, T. C. (2020) · JMIR Mental Health · doi:10.2196/17935 · Cited by 41
“In addition, female respondents scored slightly more poorly, especially in the mood and outlook and mind-body subcategories, both subcategories with a large proportion of depressive symptoms, in line with gender differences reported elsewhere [26-28].”
BackgroundResult
The Eight-Item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale in the English Longitudinal Study of Aging: Longitudinal and Gender Invariance, Sum Score Models, and External Associations
Schlechter, P., Ford, T. J., & Neufeld, S. (2022) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911221138930 · Cited by 43
A Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Worry and Rumination
Stade, E. C., & Ruscio, A. M. (2022) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026221131309 · Cited by 49
“Given that rates of depression increase dramatically in adolescence, especially among girls (Salk et al., 2017), and that worry and rumination predict depression onset during this period (Young & Dietrich, 2015), prospective studies extending into adolescence may be especially valuable for…”
National-Level Schoolwork Pressure, Family Structure, Internet Use, and Obesity as Drivers of Time Trends in Adolescent Psychological Complaints Between 2002 and 2018
Boer, M., Cosma, A. P., Twenge, J. M., Inchley, J., Klanšček, H. J., & Stevens, G. W. J. M. (2023) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-023-01800-y · Cited by 52
“International research suggests that increases in mental health problems, especially emotional problems, in the last decades were stronger among girls than boys (Bor et al., 2014), and that these differences peak in adolescence (Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Depression by gender and associated factors among older adults in India: implications for age-friendly policies
Paul, R., Muhammad, T., Rashmi, R., Sharma, P., Srivastava, S., & Zanwar, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-44762-8 · Cited by 45
“Prior research has demonstrated a higher prevalence of depression among women globally 46–50 with the rates of depression being—nearly two-fold higher among women than men due to psychosocial mediators such as obesity and perceived interpersonal and behavioural issues 47,51,52 .”
Background
Health-Related Quality of Life and Its Correlation With Depression Among Chinese Centenarians
Han, K., Yang, S., Jia, W., Wang, S., Song, Y., Cao, W., Wang, J., Liu, M., & He, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.580757 · Cited by 44
“A previous meta-analysis using nationally representative samples demonstrated that gender differences exist in depression symptoms throughout life (35).”
Method
Sex Differences in Depression-Like Behaviors in Adult Mice Depend on Endophenotype and Strain
Pitzer, C., Kurpiers, B., & Eltokhi, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2022.838122 · Cited by 50
Prevalence of depressive symptoms in U.S. adults during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review
Ettman, C. K., Fan, A. Y., Subramanian, M., Adam, G. P., Goicoechea, E. B., Abdalla, S. M., Stuart, E. A., & Galea, S. (2023) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101348 · Cited by 49
“The association between depression and female gender was documented widely before COVID-19 across countries and across the lifecourse (Piccinelli & Wilkinson, 2000; Salk et al., 2017).”
The Mediating Role of Loneliness Between Social Support and Depressive Symptoms Among Chinese Rural Adolescents During COVID-19 Outbreak: A Comparative Study Between Left-Behind and Non-left-behind Students
Hou, T., Xie, Y., Mao, X., Liu, Y., Zhang, J., Wen, J., Chen, Y., Luo, Z., & Cai, W. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.740094 · Cited by 42
“According to ABCmodel, the sex differences of depression could be attributed to the affective (emotional stability), biological (genetics, pubertal hormones, and neural development) and cognitive (cognitive styles, rumination, and objectified body consciousness) factors (47, 48).”
Background
Sex- and suicide-specific alterations in the kynurenine pathway in the anterior cingulate cortex in major depression
Brown, S. J., Christofides, K., Weissleder, C., Huang, X.-F., Shannon Weickert, C., Lim, C. K., & Newell, K. A. (2024) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-023-01736-8 · Cited by 44
“One of the most consistent ﬁ ndings of MDD is the difference in prevalence rates according to sex, with females on average having double the rates of MDD compared to males [4 – 6].”
Background
Perceived Academic Demands, Peer and Teacher Relationships, Stress, Anxiety and Mental Health: Changes from Grade 6 to 9 as a Function of Gender and Cognitive Ability
Giota, J., & Gustafsson, J. (2020) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00313831.2020.1788144 · Cited by 55
“Compared to the gender difference in major depression, the gender difference in levels of depressive symptoms and minor depression has received less attention (Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluential
Disparities in health condition diagnoses among aging transgender and cisgender medicare beneficiaries, 2008-2017
Hughto, J. M. W., Varma, H., Babbs, G., Yee, K., Alpert, A. B., Hughes, L. D., Ellison, J. E., Downing, J. M., & Shireman, T. I. (2023) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2023.1102348 · Cited by 46
Prospective associations between psychosomatic complaints in adolescence and depression and anxiety symptoms in young adulthood: A Swedish national cohort study
Grigorian, K., Östberg, V., Raninen, J., Åhlén, J., & Låftman, S. B. (2023) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2023.101509 · Cited by 45
Recommendations for a Better Understanding of Sex and Gender in the Neuroscience of Mental Health
Wierenga, L. M., Ruigrok, A. N. V., Aksnes, E. R., Barth, C., Beck, D., Burke, S., Crestol, A., van Drunen, L., Ferrara, M., Galea, L. A. M., et al. (2023) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2023.100283 · Cited by 49
“For example, females are twice as likely as males to be diagnosed with depression and anxiety disorders, and males are more often diagnosed with attention-de ﬁ cit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder (2 – 6).”
Long-term trajectories of depressive symptoms in old age: Relationships with sociodemographic and health-related factors
de la Torre‐Luque, A., de la Fuente, J., Prina, M. A., Niubo, A. S., Haro, J. M., & Ayuso‐Mateos, J. L. (2018) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.122 · Cited by 41
Sleep Health and Serious Psychological Distress: A Nationally Representative Study of the United States among White, Black, and Hispanic/Latinx Adults
Goldstein, S. J., Gaston, S. A., McGrath, J. A., & Jackson, C. L. (2020) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s268087 · Cited by 44
Discrimination, Self-Esteem, and Mental Health Across Ethnic Groups of Second-Generation Immigrant Adolescents
Espinosa, A. (2020) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-020-00917-1 · Cited by 46
Increased inflammation predicts nine-year change in major depressive disorder diagnostic status.
Zainal, N. H., & Newman, M. G. (2021) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000716 · Cited by 46
“Alternatively, given higher prevalence and variability of depressive symptoms in women than men (Salk et al., 2017), the null effect of inflammatory activity on MDD status change among men herein might be due to reduced variability in MDD severity and inflammation levels (as shown in Table S2 in the online supplementa…”
Background
Sex Differences in Responses to Antidepressant Augmentations in Treatment-Resistant Depression
Moderie, C., Núñez, N. A., Fielding, A., Comai, S., & Gobbi, G. (2022) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1093/ijnp/pyac017 · Cited by 44
“Women are nearly twice as likely as men to suffer from major depressive disorder (MDD), and this sex difference is among the most robust of findings in psychopathology research (Weissman et al. 1996; Kessler et al. 2003; Wilhelm et al. 2008; Parker and Brotchie 2010; Salk et al. 2017).”
Background
Circular RNAs in depression: Biogenesis, function, expression, and therapeutic potential
Gan, H., Lei, Y., Yuan, N., Tang, K., Hao, W., Ma, Q., Wu, M., Zhou, X., Li, X., Huang, J., et al. (2021) · Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.biopha.2021.111244 · Cited by 41
Major Depressive Disorder and Difference between Genders
Sabic, D., Šabić, A., & Bacic-Becirovic, A. (2021) · Materia Socio Medica · doi:10.5455/msm.2021.33.105-108 · Cited by 50
“Myrna Weissman was the first to point out the genders differences in MDD and that women get MDD twice as many as men, which was confirmed by later studies (10).”
Result
The effects of the parent-child relationship and parental educational involvement on adolescent depression, self-injury, and suicidal ideation: The roles of defeat and meaning in life
Yiqiu, H. U., Zeng, Z., Liyi, P. E. N. G., Hongcai, W. A. N. G., Liu, S., Qin, Y. A. N. G., & Fang, X. (2022) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2023.00129 · Cited by 47
Sex differences in depression: An immunological perspective
Kropp, D. R., & Hodes, G. E. (2023) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2023.02.016 · Cited by 43
“Women are at a greater risk of developing depression with a prevalence between women and men at 2:1 respectively (Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Depression Associated With Hormonal Contraceptive Use as a Risk Indicator for Postpartum Depression
Larsen, S. V., Mikkelsen, A. P., Lidegaard, Ø., & Frøkjær, V. G. (2023) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2023.0807 · Cited by 41
Stress to inflammation and anhedonia: Mechanistic insights from preclinical and clinical models
Boyle, C. C., Bower, J. E., Eisenberger, N. I., & Irwin, M. R. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105307 · Cited by 46
Depression and emotional eating in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Muha, J., Schumacher, A., Campisi, S. C., & Korczak, D. J. (2024) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2024.107511 · Cited by 49
“Also, meta-analysis of sex differences in depression found that the peak age at which sex differences are observed is between 15 and 20 years old (Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Peer victimization, depressive symptoms and non-suicidal self-injury behavior in Chinese migrant children: the roles of gender and stressful life events
Wang, Q., & Liu, X. (2019) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s215246 · Cited by 42
“Related empirical studies have shown that adolescent girls are more likely to experience higher levels of depression than boys.(31) Taken together, these gender differences relating to NSSI and depressive symptoms could, therefore, shape the role that depressive symptoms might play in the relationship between peer vic…”
Mental Health, Burnout, and Resilience in Healthcare Professionals After the First Wave of COVID-19 Pandemic in Spain
Moreno, L., Talavera‐Velasco, B., Vázquez-Estévez, D., & Martín‐García, J. (2021) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000002464 · Cited by 51
Psychological legacies of intergenerational trauma under South African apartheid: Prenatal stress predicts greater vulnerability to the psychological impacts of future stress exposure during late adolescence and early adulthood in Soweto, South Africa
Kim, A. W., Mohamed, R. S., Norris, S. A., Richter, L., & Kuzawa, C. W. (2022) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13672 · Cited by 48
Growth mindset, persistence, and self-efficacy in early adolescents: Associations with depression, anxiety, and externalising behaviours
Cherewick, M., Hipp, E., Njau, P., & Dahl, R. E. (2023) · Global Public Health · doi:10.1080/17441692.2023.2213300 · Cited by 52
“…late-adolescence (ages 13-18), early adolescence (ages 10-12) is an opportunity to reduce gender disparities in mental health that can persist across the life course (Angold et al., 1998; Beesdo et al., 2009; Beesdo-Baum & Knappe, 2012; Caouette & Guyer, 2014; Salk et al., 2017; Steinberg, 2005).”
Background
Gender Differences in Adolescents’ Exposure to Stressful Life Events and Differential Links to Impaired School Functioning
Lavoie, L., Dupéré, V., Dion, É., Crosnoe, R. L., Lacourse, É., & Archambault, I. (2019) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-00511-4 · Cited by 49
Abnormal Alterations of Regional Spontaneous Neuronal Activity in Inferior Frontal Orbital Gyrus and Corresponding Brain Circuit Alterations: A Resting-State fMRI Study in Somatic Depression
Yan, R., Tao, S., Liu, H., Yu, C., Shi, J., Yang, Y., Zhu, R., Yao, Z., & Lü, Q. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00267 · Cited by 40
The Psychometric Properties of the Chinese Version of the Beck Depression Inventory-II With Middle School Teachers
Wang, X., Wang, Y., & Xin, T. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.548965 · Cited by 46
Awareness, anxiety, and depression in healthcare professionals, medical students, and general population of Pakistan during COVID-19 Pandemic: A cross sectional online survey.
Zafar, S. M. A., Tahir, M. J., Malik, M., Malik, M. I., Akhtar, F. K., & Rubi, G. (2020) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · doi:10.34171/mjiri.34.131 · Cited by 40
“Men may be less likely to develop depression than women, but this does not mean that men having depression are not distressed and impaired (23).”
Background
Temporal associations among loneliness, anxiety, and depression during the COVID‐19 pandemic period
Wu, J., Wu, Y., & Tian, Y. (2021) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3076 · Cited by 48
Cognitive reappraisal, emotional suppression, and depressive and anxiety symptoms in later life: The moderating role of gender
Preston, T. J., Carr, D. C., Hajcak, G., Sheffler, J., & Sachs‐Ericsson, N. (2021) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2021.1998350 · Cited by 41
Serotonin in depression and Alzheimer’s disease: Focus on SSRI’s beneficial effects
Tahiri, J., Mian, M., Aftan, F., Habbal, S., Salehi, F., Reddy, P. H., & Reddy, A. P. (2024) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2024.102537 · Cited by 38
Positive youth development as a protective factor for adolescents at risk for depression and alcohol use
Milot, A. S., & Mahalik, J. R. (2019) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1080/10888691.2019.1634569 · Cited by 48
Stress Exposure and Maternal Depression as Risk Factors for Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in Adolescents
Henry, L. M., Steele, E. H., Watson, K. H., Bettis, A. H., Gruhn, M. A., Dunbar, J. P., Reising, M. M., & Compas, B. E. (2019) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-019-00940-2 · Cited by 41
Mental Health and Substance Use Diagnoses and Treatment Disparities by Sexual Orientation and Gender in a Community Health Center Sample
Batchelder, A., Stanton, A. M., Kirakosian, N., King, D. S., Grasso, C., Potter, J. E., Mayer, K. H., & O’Cleirigh, C. M. (2021) · LGBT Health · doi:10.1089/lgbt.2020.0293 · Cited by 39
“For example, depression and its associated symptoms are approximately two times more prevalent among women than among men.(16,17) Recent data have also revealed that transgender and gender-diverse (TGD) individuals experience significantly greater mental health symptom severity and problematic substance use relative t…”
Background
Effect of Cold Stress on Neurobehavioral and Physiological Parameters in Rats
Elmarzouki, H., Aboussaleh, Y., Najimi, M., Chigr, F., & Ahami, A. O. T. (2021) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2021.660124 · Cited by 38
“…biology, stress response (Kudielka and Kirschbaum, 2005; Bale, 2006; Babb et al., 2013) and chronic stress sensitivity (Kessler and McLeod, 1984; Bebbington, 1996; Hostetler and Ryabinin, 2013); to changes in memory function, learning process and behavior Frontiers in Physiology |…”
Background
Continuity and change in neighborhood disadvantage and adolescent depression and anxiety
King, C., Huang, X., & Dewan, N. A. (2021) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2021.102724 · Cited by 39
Autonomic nervous system correlates of posttraumatic stress symptoms in youth: Meta-analysis and qualitative review
Siciliano, R. E., Anderson, A. S., & Compas, B. E. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102125 · Cited by 48
The Eph receptor A4 plays a role in demyelination and depression-related behavior
Li, Y., Su, P., Chen, Y., Nie, J., Yuan, T., Wong, A. H. C., & Liu, F. (2022) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · Cited by 36
Assessment of clinical outcomes of medicinal cannabis therapy for depression: analysis from the UK Medical Cannabis Registry
Mangoo, S., Erridge, S., Holvey, C., Coomber, R., Barros, D. A. R., Bhoskar, U., Mwimba, G., Praveen, K., Symeon, C., Sachdeva-Mohan, S., et al. (2022) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1080/14737175.2022.2161894 · Cited by 35
Global prevalence and risk factors of depression in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2000 to 2022
Xie, H., Jiang, Y., Liu, L., Peng, H., Li, J., & Chen, Z. (2023) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2023.111537 · Cited by 44
Gendered work-family trajectories and depression at older age
Engels, M., Weyers, S., Moebus, S., Jöckel, K., Erbel, R., Pesch, B., Behrens, T., Dragano, N., & Wahrendorf, M. (2019) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2018.1501665 · Cited by 38
“The prevalence of depression in our Western society is high and women are diagnosed with depression about twice as often as men (Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
The Epidemiology of Depressive Symptoms in the Last Year of Life
Kozlov, E., Dong, X., Kelley, A. S., & Ankuda, C. K. (2019) · Journal of the American Geriatrics Society · doi:10.1111/jgs.16197 · Cited by 39
“Regarding sex, women report higher rates of depression than men across the lifespan, so it is not surprising that this effect holds in the last year of life.(45,46) Regarding age, younger adults with diagnoses of serious illness may have more difficulty accepting death or illness because it is perceived as “untimely”…”
Background
Mental health professionals view about the impact of male gender for the treatment of men with depression - a qualitative study
Stiawa, M., Müller-Stierlin, A., Staiger, T., Kilian, R., Becker, T., Gündel, H., Beschoner, P., Grinschgl, A., Frasch, K., Schmauß, M., et al. (2020) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-020-02686-x · Cited by 38
Attachment style, thought suppression, self-compassion and depression: Testing a serial mediation model
Murray, C., Jacobs, J. I.-L., Rock, A. J., & Clark, G. I. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0245056 · Cited by 45
“Given that gender has been shown to influence levels of self-compassion [84], suppression [85] and depression levels [86], it is important that gender effects also be examined in future studies.”
Background
Attachment and the Development of Depressive Symptoms in Adolescence: The Role of Regulating Positive and Negative Affect
Verhees, M. W. F. T., Finet, C., Vandesande, S., Bastin, M., Bijttebier, P., Bodner, N., van Aswegen, T., de Walle, M. V., & Bosmans, G. (2021) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-021-01426-y · Cited by 46
“Additionally, as sex differences in adolescent depression are frequently reported in the literature (e.g., Salk et al., 2017), differences between girls and boys were explored by running multi-group mediation analyses (controlling for T1 depressive symptoms and T1 age).”
Background
A Psychometric Examination of the Coronavirus Anxiety Scale and the Fear of Coronavirus Disease 2019 Scale in the Italian Population
Orrú, G., Bertelloni, D., Diolaiuti, F., Conversano, C., Ciacchini, R., & Gemignani, A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.669384 · Cited by 42
“Such outcomes are in contrast with other studies reporting lower scores as age increases (Faravelli et al., 2013; Salk et al., 2017).”
Result
Comorbid anxiety and depression, depression, and anxiety in comparison in multi-ethnic community of west China: prevalence, metabolic profile, and related factors
Liu, X., Zhao, W., Hu, F., Hao, Q., Hou, L., Sun, X., Zhang, G., Yue, J., & Dong, B. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.10.083 · Cited by 41
Altered regional brain activity and functional connectivity patterns in major depressive disorder: A function of childhood trauma or diagnosis?
Luo, Q., Chen, J., Li, Y., Wu, Z., Lin, X., Yao, J., Yu, H., Peng, H., & Wu, H. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.01.038 · Cited by 37
A Narrative Review of the Association Between Depression and Heart Disease Among Women: Prevalence, Mechanisms of Action, and Treatment
Rome, D. R., Sales, A., Leeds, R., Usseglio, J., Cornelius, T. M., Monk, C. E., Smolderen, K. G. E., & Moise, N. (2022) · Current Atherosclerosis Reports · doi:10.1007/s11883-022-01048-0 · Cited by 39
Association of depression symptoms and sleep quality with state-trait anxiety in medical university students in Anhui Province, China: a mediation analysis
Chen, J., Tuersun, Y., Yang, J., Xiong, M., Wang, Y., Rao, X., & Jiang, S. (2022) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-022-03683-2 · Cited by 37
“of gender differences in depression in several countries around the world, including China, and noted that the significant decrease in gender differences in depressive symptoms from adolescence to the early 20s, while differences between the ages of 20–29 and later years were not significant [45].”
Background
Global, regional, and national incidence trends of depressive disorder, 1990–2019: An age-period-cohort analysis based on the Global Burden of Disease 2019 study
Xu, Y. J., Li, R., Hu, C., He, Y., Zhang, X., & Li-na, J. (2024) · General Hospital Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2024.03.003 · Cited by 37
A predictive model for depression in Chinese middle-aged and elderly people with physical disabilities
Shen, L., Xu, X., Yue, S., & Yin, S. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-05766-4 · Cited by 39
“However, a global meta-analysis showed that gender differences in depression are evident in adolescence [20].”
Background
The multiple roles of chronic stress and glucocorticoids in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis
Burke, M. R., Sotiropoulos, I., & Waites, C. L. (2024) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2024.08.015 · Cited by 43
Association between nutritional level, menstrual-related symptoms, and mental health in female medical students
Fukushima, K., Fukushima, N., Sato, H., Yokota, J., & Uchida, K. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0235909 · Cited by 43
“Additionally, although gender differences in the rate of major depression and depressive symptoms peak in adolescence [7], these aforementioned studies regarding nutritional status have focused on middle-aged and elderly participants.”
Background
Depressive and anxiety symptoms in refugees: Insights from classical test theory, item response theory and network analysis
Schlechter, P., Wilkinson, P. O., Knausenberger, J., Wanninger, K., Kamp, S., Nexhmedin Morina, B., & Hellmann, J. H. (2020) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2499 · Cited by 37
Differential Experiences of Mental Health among Trans/Gender Diverse Adults in Michigan
Kattari, S. K., Kattari, L., Johnson, I. M., Lacombe‐Duncan, A., & Misiolek, B. A. (2020) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph17186805 · Cited by 41
“Epidemiological studies have indicated demographic disparities in depression prevalence among women [5,6] and people experiencing poverty [5].”
Background
Role of BDNF-mTORC1 Signaling Pathway in Female Depression
An, X., Yao, X., Li, B., Yang, W., Cui, R., Zhao, G., & Jin, Y. (2021) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2021/6619515 · Cited by 39
Health-Related Quality of Life, Depressive Symptoms, Anxiety, and Somatization Symptoms in Male and Female Patients with Chronic Tinnitus
Boecking, B., Biehl, R., Brüeggemann, P., & Mazurek, B. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10132798 · Cited by 37
Emerging roles of long non-coding RNA in depression
Hao, W.-Z., Chen, Q., Wang, L., Tao, G., Gan, H., Deng, L.-J., Huang, J.-Q., & Chen, J.-X. (2022) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2022.110515 · Cited by 37
Longitudinal evidence on the development of socioeconomic inequalities in mental health due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Norway
Reme, B., Wörn, J., & Skirbekk, V. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-06616-7 · Cited by 37
Age-period-cohort analysis of depression trends: are depressive symptoms increasing across generations in Germany?
Beller, J. (2022) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-022-00732-z · Cited by 40
Comparing resting state and task-based EEG using machine learning to predict vulnerability to depression in a non-clinical population
Kaushik, P., Yang, H., Roy, P. P., & van Vugt, M. K. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-34298-2 · Cited by 43
Global prevalence of fatigue in patients with multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Yi, X., Zhang, Y., Du, Q., Kang, J. F., Song, S., Li, T., & Jiang, Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2024.1457788 · Cited by 42
“The evidence suggests that females are more likely to suffer from sleep disorders (56, 57) and depression (58), yet in PwMS, these symptoms can lead to secondary fatigue (9, 10, 50, 59).”
Background
Risk factors for depression in adults: NR3C1 DNA methylation and lifestyle association
Borçoi, A. R., Mendes, S. O., dos Santos, J. G., de Oliveira, M. M., Moreno, I. A. A., Freitas, F. V., Pinheiro, J. A., Arpini, J. K., Cunha, E. R., Archanjo, A. B., et al. (2019) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.10.011 · Cited by 39
Prolonged Grief, Posttraumatic Stress, and Depression Among Bereaved Parents: Prevalence and Response to an Intervention Program
Baumann, I., Künzel, J., Goldbeck, L., Tutus, D., & Niemitz, M. (2020) · Omega · doi:10.1177/0030222820918674 · Cited by 29
“This proportion was reported earlier regarding symptoms of major depression in bereaved parents (Kreicbergs et al., 2004) as well as in the general population (Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Different levels of physical activity and depression symptoms among older adults from 18 countries: A population‐based study from the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE)
Marques, A., de Matos, M. G., Bordado, J., Gouveia, É. R., Peralta, M., & Gómez‐Baya, D. (2020) · European Journal of Sport Science · doi:10.1080/17461391.2020.1795273 · Cited by 38
“Taking into account that women are more prone to have depression than men (Ferrari et al., 2013; Salk et al., 2017), practicing PA, may be a relevant strategy to reduce depression symptoms specially among women.”
Background
Depression and Anxiety of Portuguese University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study about Prevalence and Associated Factors
Amaro, P., da Fonseca, C. J. V., Afonso, A., Jacinto, G., Gomes, L., Pereira, H. R., JOSÉ, H. M. G., Silva, C., Lima, A., do Arco, H. M. D. S. L. R., et al. (2024) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/2024/5528350 · Cited by 37
Age and sex specific incidence for depression from early childhood to adolescence: A 13-year longitudinal analysis of German health insurance data
Frey, M., Obermeier, V., von Kries, R., & Schulte‐Körne, G. (2020) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.06.001 · Cited by 41
Morphometrical Brain Markers of Sex Difference
Brennan, D. J., Wu, T., & Fan, J. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab037 · Cited by 32
Life With Corona: Increased Gender Differences in Aggression and Depression Symptoms Due to the COVID-19 Pandemic Burden in Germany
Abreu, L., Koebach, A., Díaz, Ó., Carleial, S., Hoeffler, A., Stojetz, W., Freudenreich, H., Justino, P., & Brück, T. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689396 · Cited by 37

Authors: Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y.
Affiliations: University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
ORCID: Salk, Rachel H.
Hyde, Janet S.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2017-08
Volume: 143
Issue: 8
Pages: 783-822
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000102
PMC: PMC5532074
OpenAlex: W2609632515
Cited by: 2,622
References: 276
Citations by year: 2026: 352 · 2025: 420 · 2024: 403 · 2023: 354 · 2022: 388 · 2021: 308 · 2020: 261 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 8
FWCI: 153.86
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: other-oa
www.apa.org/pubs/journals/resources/open-access.aspx (am, 269 d)
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation (DGE-071823; DRL 1138114)
National Institute of Mental Health (T32 MH018269-30)
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Keywords: gender differences, depression, depressive symptoms, adolescence, lifespan development, gender equity, cross-national comparison, health disparities, men's mental health
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Depression, Major Depressive Disorder, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Young Adult

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Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms

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