The genetic history of Ice Age Europe
Open accessAbstract
Modern humans arrived in Europe ~45,000 years ago, but little is known about their genetic composition before the start of farming ~8,500 years ago. Here we analyse genome-wide data from 51 Eurasians from ~45,000-7,000 years ago. Over this time, the proportion of Neanderthal DNA decreased from 3-6% to around 2%, consistent with natural selection against Neanderthal variants in modern humans. Whereas there is no evidence of the earliest modern humans in Europe contributing to the genetic composition of present-day Europeans, all individuals between ~37,000 and ~14,000 years ago descended from a single founder population which forms part of the ancestry of present-day Europeans. An ~35,000-year-old individual from northwest Europe represents an early branch of this founder population which was then displaced across a broad region, before reappearing in southwest Europe at the height of the last Ice Age ~19,000 years ago. During the major warming period after ~14,000 years ago, a genetic component related to present-day Near Easterners became widespread in Europe. These results document how population turnover and migration have been recurring themes of European prehistory.
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After admixture, early events of negative selection removed large parts of archaic DNA, but about 2% of Neandertal ancestry is still found in all present-day non-Africans.
“After admixture, early events of negative selection removed large parts of archaic DNA but ~2% of Neandertal ancestry is still found in all present-day non-Africans [15–17].”
From Neandertal introgression partitions the genetic landscape of neuropsychiatric disorders and associated behavioral phenotypes (2022) · cites this paper as [15]
The section “Natural selection has reduced Neanderthal ancestry over the last 45,000 years” (page not provided) reports a decline in Neanderthal ancestry driven by natural selection and estimates about 2% in present-day Eurasians. It describes a steady decrease over thousands of years, not specifically early events, and does not establish the figure for all present-day non-Africans. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was substantial: the Mala are inferred to have ~18% steppe-related ancestry, while the Kalash of Pakistan are inferred to have ~50%, similar to present-day northern Europeans.
“The demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was substantial, as the Mala, a south Indian population with minimal ANI along the ‘Indian Cline’ of such ancestry34,35 is inferred to have ~18% steppe-related ancestry, while the Kalash of Pakistan are inferred to have ~50%, similar to present-day northern Europeans7.”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [35]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 1 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEvidence in favor of hybridization between Neanderthals and modern humans has accumulated during the past decade.
“Evidence in favor of hybridization has accumulated during the past decade (4–6).”
From Past human expansions shaped the spatial pattern of Neanderthal ancestry (2023) · cites this paper as [4]
It is impossible to model the Ancestral North Indians (ANI) as being derived from any single ancient population in the dataset.
“We show that it is impossible to model the ANI as being derived from any single ancient population in our dataset.”
From Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East (2016) · cites this paper as [35]
The Genetic clustering section describes ancient European and Siberian samples, while the Extended Data discuss ancestry estimates and comparisons among those samples (page numbers unavailable). Searches for “Ancestral North Indians,” “ANI,” and single-population ancestry models found no passage addressing whether ANI can be derived from one ancient population. (LLM, conf=0.75)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe depletion of archaic ancestry around functional elements in the genomes of present-day people reflects widespread purifying selection against archaic variants.
“the depletion of archaic ancestry around functional elements in the genomes of present-day people reflects widespread purifying selection against archaic variants [5–7]”
From Functional implications of Neandertal introgression in modern humans (2017) · cites this paper as [6]
The decrease in frequency of Neandertal alleles contributing to protein sequence and expression variation is particularly the case near protein coding genes, and is consistent with negative selection on Neandertal DNA in modern humans.
“This is particularly the case near protein coding genes, and is consistent with negative selection on Neandertal DNA in modern humans [5, 6, 7, 39].”
From Functional implications of Neandertal introgression in modern humans (2017) · cites this paper as [6]
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FADS1 and the Timing of Human Adaptation to Agriculture
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Self-citationA 14C chronology for the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition at Bacho Kiro Cave, Bulgaria
Fewlass, H., Talamo, S., Wacker, L., Kromer, B., Tuna, T., Fagault, Y., Bard, É., McPherron, S. P., Aldeias, V., Maria, R., et al. (2020) · Nature Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1038/s41559-020-1136-3 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Self-citationLate Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia
Feldman, M., Fernández‐Domínguez, E., Reynolds, L., Baird, D., Pearson, J. A., Hershkovitz, I., May, H., Goring‐Morris, A. N., Benz, M., Gresky, J., et al. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09209-7 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Self-citationSurvival of Late Pleistocene Hunter-Gatherer Ancestry in the Iberian Peninsula
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Prüfer, K., Posth, C., He, Y. H., Stoessel, A., Spyrou, M. A., Devièse, T., Mattonai, M., Ribechini, E., Higham, T., Velemínský, P., et al. (2021) · Nature Ecology & Evolution · doi:10.1038/s41559-021-01443-x · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Self-citationLate Jomon male and female genome sequences from the Funadomari site in Hokkaido, Japan
Kanzawa‐Kiriyama, H., Jinam, T. A., Kawai, Y., Sato, T. K., Hosomichi, K., Tajima, A., Adachi, N., Matsumura, H., Kryukov, K. A., Saitou, N., et al. (2019) · Anthropological Science · doi:10.1537/ase.190415 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
A genetic probe into the ancient and medieval history of Southern Europe and West Asia
Lazaridis, I., Alpaslan-Roodenberg, S., Acar, A., Açıkkol, A., Agelarakis, A. P., Aghikyan, L., Akyüz, U., Andreeva, D., Andrijašević, G., Antonović, D., et al. (2022) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abq0755 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
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Ten millennia of hepatitis B virus evolution
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Self-citationAncient genomes from present-day France unveil 7,000 years of its demographic history
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Ancient DNA sheds light on the genetic origins of early Iron Age Philistines
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Fu, Q., Posth, C., Hajdinjak, M., Petr, M., Mallick, S., Fernandes, D., Furtwängler, A., Haak, W., Meyer, M., Mittnik, A., Nickel, B., Peltzer, A., Rohland, N., Slon, V., Talamo, S., Lazaridis, I., Lipson, M., Mathieson, I., Schiffels, S., Skoglund, P., Derevianko, A. P., Drozdov, N., Slavinsky, V., Tsybankov, A., Cremonesi, R. G., Mallegni, F., Gély, B., Vacca, E., Morales, M. R. G., Straus, L. G., Neugebauer-Maresch, C., Teschler-Nicola, M., Constantin, S., Moldovan, O. T., Benazzi, S., Peresani, M., Coppola, D., Lari, M., Ricci, S., Ronchitelli, A., Valentin, F., Thevenet, C., Wehrberger, K., Grigorescu, D., Rougier, H., Crevecoeur, I., Flas, D., Semal, P., Mannino, M. A., Cupillard, C., Bocherens, H., Conard, N. J., Harvati, K., Moiseyev, V., Drucker, D. G., Svoboda, J., Richards, M. P., Caramelli, D., Pinhasi, R., Kelso, J., Patterson, N., Krause, J., Pääbo, S., & Reich, D.
- Affiliations
- Harvard University (US)
- Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology (DE)
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology (DE)
- Broad Institute (US)
- University College Dublin (IE)
- University of Tübingen (DE)
- Russian Academy of Sciences (RU)
- University of Pisa (IT)
- University of Bari Aldo Moro (IT)
- Universidad de Cantabria (ES)
- Austrian Academy of Sciences (AT)
- Emil Racovita Institute of Speleology (RO)
- University of Ferrara (IT)
- University of Florence (IT)
- University of Siena (IT)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- University of Bucharest (RO)
- California State University, Northridge (US)
- Travaux et Recherches Archéologiques sur les Cultures, les Espaces et les Sociétés (FR)
- Institute of Natural Sciences (BE)
- Aarhus University (DK)
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment (DE)
- Russian Museum of Ethnography (RU)
- Simon Fraser University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Reich, David
- ORCID
- Fu, Qiaomei
- Posth, Cosimo
- Hajdinjak, Mateja
- Petr, Martin
- Mallick, Swapan
- Fernandes, Daniel
- Furtwängler, Anja
- Haak, Wolfgang
- Meyer, Matthias
- Mittnik, Alissa
- Peltzer, Alexander
- Rohland, Nadin
- Slon, Viviane
- Talamo, Sahra
- Lazaridis, Iosif
- Lipson, Mark
- Mathieson, Iain
- Schiffels, Stephan
- Skoglund, Pontus
- Derevianko, Anatoly P.
- Drozdov, Nikolai
- Slavinsky, Vyacheslav
- Vacca, Eligio
- Morales, Manuel R. González
- Straus, Lawrence G.
- Neugebauer-Maresch, Christine
- Constantin, Silviu
- Moldovan, Oana Teodora
- Benazzi, Stefano
- Peresani, Marco
- Coppola, Donato
- Lari, Martina
- Ronchitelli, Annamaria
- Valentin, Frédérique
- Wehrberger, Kurt
- Grigorescu, Dan
- Rougier, Hélène
- Flas, Damien
- Semal, Patrick
- Mannino, Marcello A.
- Cupillard, Christophe
- Bocherens, Hervé
- Conard, Nicholas J.
- Harvati, Katerina
- Moiseyev, Vyacheslav
- Drucker, Dorothée G.
- Richards, Michael P.
- Caramelli, David
- Pinhasi, Ron
- Kelso, Janet
- Patterson, Nick
- Krause, Johannes
- Pääbo, Svante
- Reich, David
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2016-05-02
- Volume
- 534
- Issue
- 7606
- Pages
- 200-205
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- PMC
- PMC4943878
- OpenAlex
- W2344660378
- Cited by
- 959
- References
- 64
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 77 · 2024: 103 · 2023: 84 · 2022: 100 · 2021: 105 · 2020: 97 · 2019: 110 · 2018: 93 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 34
- FWCI
- 90.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Digital Access to Scholarship at Harvard (DASH) (Harvard University) (acceptedVersion)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Open Repository and Bibliography (University of Liège) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- ASEP (submittedVersion, public-domain)
- Archivio istituzionale della ricerca (Alma Mater Studiorum Università di Bologna) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion)
- Florence Research (University of Florence) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion)
- CINECA IRIS Institutional Research Information System (University of Bari Aldo Moro) (submittedVersion)
- California State University ScholarWorks (system-wide DSpace) (submittedVersion)
- Institutional Research Information System University of Ferrara (University of Ferrara) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Use Siena air (University of Siena) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (1032255)
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute
- Wenner-Gren Foundation (2014-453)
- Leakey Foundation (2015-2016)
- Ministero per i beni e le attività culturali
- European Commission (219965)
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB 1052, project A02, FOR2237, KR 4015/1-1, 1FUGG)
- National Natural Science Foundation of China (L1524016)
- Irish Research Council (GOIPG/2013/36)
- Chinese Academy of Sciences (XDA05130202)
- Austrian Science Fund (FWF P‐17258, P23612, P 17258, P21660, P 19347)
- Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca ((PRIN 2010), 2010-11, P.R.I.N. 2010/11)
- Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
- Vetenskapsrådet (2014-453)
- Universidad de Cantabria
- Unitatea Executiva pentru Finantarea Invatamantului Superior, a Cercetarii, Dezvoltarii si Inovarii (31/2010)
- Russian Science Foundation (No. 14-50-00036, 14-50-, 14-50-00036)
- Regione del Veneto
- Koninklijk Belgisch Instituut voor Natuurwetenschappen
- National Institutes of Health
- California State University, Northridge
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (GM100233, R01GM100233)
- European Social Fund
- FP7 Ideas: European Research Council (283503, 263441)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Forensic and Genetic Research
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Pleistocene-Era Hominins and Archaeology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic diversity and population structure
- Keywords
- ancient human genomes, Neanderthal ancestry, population turnover, migration, founder populations, demographic history, Last Glacial Maximum
- MeSH terms
- Animals, DNA, Europe, Biological Evolution, Female, Genetics, Population, Humans, Male, Middle East, Phylogeny, Population Dynamics, Selection, Genetic, Time Factors, Sequence Analysis, DNA, Founder Effect, White People, Ice Cover, History, Ancient, Neanderthals, Human Migration
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