Relationships between functional food consumption and individual traits and values: A segmentation approach

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In the convenience-oriented segment, the age distribution is almost normal but with slightly fewer consumers in the 50-59 age group (16.8%).

“Like the careless segment, the age distribution is almost normal but with slightly fewer consumers in the 50-59 age group (16.8%).”

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The self-controlled segment consists of 194 consumers.

“The self-controlled segment consists of 194 consumers, with women slightly overrepresented (54.1%).”

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All age groups are equally represented in the careless segment, with 50-59-year-olds slightly underrepresented (15.6%).

“All age groups are equally represented, with 50-59-year-olds slightly underrepresented (15.6%).”

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The initial principal component analysis resulted in seven principal components.

“The initial PCA resulted in seven principal components.”

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The careless segment consists of 282 consumers.

“The careless segment consists of 282 consumers-mostly men (61.7%).”

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The two items capturing weight management concern loaded onto a separate component.

“The two items capturing weight management concern loaded onto a separate component.”

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Women are slightly overrepresented in the self-controlled segment (54.1%).

“The self-controlled segment consists of 194 consumers, with women slightly overrepresented (54.1%).”

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The convenience-oriented segment comprises 334 consumers.

“The convenience-oriented segment comprises 334 consumers.”

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The self-controlled consumer eats naturally healthy foods (e.g., vegetables, fruits, and berries) more often and unhealthy foods (e.g., sweets, snack foods, and ready-made foods) less often.

“Although the self-controlled consumer eats naturally healthy foods (e.g., vegetables, fruits, and berries) more often and unhealthy foods (e.g., sweets, snack foods, and ready-made foods) less often, the convenience-oriented consumer has the most favorable attitudes and is most positive about consuming functional foods.”

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The convenience-oriented consumer exhibits low levels of self-control and is highly concerned about weight management.

“Furthermore, the convenience-oriented consumer exhibits low levels of self-control and is highly concerned about weight management.”

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The typical convenience-oriented consumers are women of all ages who find it difficult to abandon bad food habits.

“The typical convenience-oriented consumers are women of all ages who find it difficult to abandon bad food habits.”

May combine two claims.

The convenience-oriented consumer has the most favorable attitudes and is most positive about consuming functional foods.

“Although the self-controlled consumer eats naturally healthy foods (e.g., vegetables, fruits, and berries) more often and unhealthy foods (e.g., sweets, snack foods, and ready-made foods) less often, the convenience-oriented consumer has the most favorable attitudes and is most positive about consuming functional foods.”

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The convenience-oriented consumer has the most positive attitudes toward eating functional foods, the strongest intentions to consume such foods, and the highest consumption frequency of this type of food.

“The convenience-oriented consumer has the most positive attitudes toward eating functional foods, the strongest intentions to consume such foods, as well as the highest consumption frequency of this type of food.”

May combine two claims.

The majority of the careless have a lower level of education (elementary school and high school) and appear to be uninvolved or uninterested in both food and health.

“The majority of the careless have a lower level of education (elementary school and high school) and appear to be uninvolved or uninterested in both food and health.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The majority rule suggested three clusters as the most appropriate solution.

“The majority rule 1 suggested three clusters as the most appropriate solution.”

May combine two claims.

In contrast to convenience-oriented consumers, self-controlled consumers are not as concerned about weight management but emphasize the importance of health somewhat more.

“In contrast to convenience-oriented consumers, self-controlled consumers are not as concerned about weight management but emphasize the importance of health somewhat more.”

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The careless consumers comprise mostly men and are characterized by a reluctance or incuriosity toward new food experiences.

“The careless consumers comprise mostly men and are characterized by a reluctance or incuriosity toward new food experiences.”

May combine two claims.

Both the convenience-oriented and the self-controlled consumer are equally motivated by hedonism, but the latter has high levels of self-control and the former has low levels of this trait.

“Both the convenience-oriented and the self-controlled consumer are equally motivated by hedonism, but where the latter has high levels of self-control, the former has low levels of this trait.”

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The segment most inclined to consume functional foods also had a pronounced concern about weight gain and was overtly convenience oriented.

“Worth noting is that the segment most inclined to consume functional foods also had a pronounced concern about weight gain and was overtly convenience oriented.”

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Functional foods promote optimal health and reduce the risk of noncommunicable diseases.

“Therefore, functional foods promote optimal health and reduce the risk of noncommunicable diseases (Granato, Nunes, & Barba, 2017).”

• cites Granato, Nunes, & Barba, 2017Not checked yet

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Functional foods belong to a relatively new and ambiguous food category for consumers.

“Functional foods belong to a relatively new and ambiguous food category for consumers (Annunziata & Vecchio, 2011;Scrinis, 2008) and hence, it has been suggested to attract attention from food innovators and variety-seekers.”

• cites Annunziata & Vecchio, 2011Not checked yet

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• cites Scrinis, 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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Domain-specific innovativeness is predictive of willingness to try and use new food products, including functional foods.

“Further, research has demonstrated that domain-specific innovativeness is predictive of willingness to try and use new food products, including functional foods (Huotilainen et al., 2006).”

• cites Huotilainen et al., 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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In the area of food, consumers demand variety in their diet for hedonic and utilitarian reasons.

“In the area of food, consumers demand variety in their diet for hedonic and utilitarian reasons (Baltas, Kokkinaki, & Loukopoulou, 2017).”

• cites Baltas et al., 2017 sourceNot checked yet

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Both personality traits and universal values are relatively stable and transcend specific actions and situations.

“However, both personality traits and universal values are relatively stable and transcend specific actions and situations (Kassarjian, 1971;Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987), distinguishing these constructs from attitudes and intentions that usually refer to more specific actions, objects, or situations.”

• cites Kassarjian, 1971 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Schwartz & Bilsky, 1987Not checked yet

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Both variety-seeking tendency and consumer innovativeness are relevant concepts in predicting or explaining consumer behavior with respect to foods.

“Both VST and CI are thus relevant concepts in predicting or explaining consumer behavior with respect to foods (Huotilainen et al., 2006;van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992).”

• cites Huotilainen et al., 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992Not checked yet

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Functional foods have been suggested to attract attention from food innovators and variety-seekers.

“Functional foods belong to a relatively new and ambiguous food category for consumers (Annunziata & Vecchio, 2011;Scrinis, 2008) and hence, it has been suggested to attract attention from food innovators and variety-seekers.”

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Individuals with strong variety-seeking tendency with respect to foods become bored more quickly and are especially receptive to new products but are less inclined to develop loyalty to specific brands or products.

“It has been suggested that individuals with strong VST with respect to foods become bored more quickly and are especially receptive to new products but are less inclined to develop loyalty to specific brands or products (van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992).”

• cites van Trijp & Steenkamp, 1992Not checked yet

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Consumer acceptance of functional foods is contingent upon various factors associated with sensory attributes, health claims or benefits, and cognitive, motivational, or attitudinal determinants.

“Consumer acceptance of functional foods is contingent upon various factors associated with sensory attributes, health claims or benefits, and cognitive, motivational, or attitudinal determinants (Siró et al., 2008).”

• cites Siró et al., 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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Intention constitutes a motivational force for subsequent behavior that predicts healthy eating behavior.

“Intention, in turn, constitutes a motivational force for subsequent behavior (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010;Sheeran, 2002) that predicts (healthy) eating behavior (Conner, Norman, & Bell, 2002).”

• cites Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010Not checked yet

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• cites Sheeran, 2002 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Conner et al., 2002 sourceNot checked yet

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Attitude is a strong predictor of behavior and is associated with behavioral intention to consume a variety of foods, including functional foods.

“Commonly, attitude is a strong predictor of behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977) and is associated with behavioral intention to consume a variety of foods (Cook, Kerr, & Moore, 2002;Patch, Tapsell, & Williams, 2005;Verbeke, 2005), including functional foods (Hung, de Kok, & Verbeke, 2016;O'Connor & White, 2010).”

• cites Ajzen & Fishbein, 1977 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Hung et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites O'Connor & White, 2010Not checked yet

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The study used a nationally representative sample of 810 Norwegian adults, representative of sex, age, and region, surveyed in January 2019.

“A large sample (N = 810) of the Norwegian adult population-representative of sex, age, and region-was surveyed in January 2019.”

• Also stated in: § 1. Introduction · plain

  “The current research employs a nationally representative sample of 810 Norwegian consumers to ascertain valid cluster solutions of appropriate segment sizes and avoids the factor-clustering critique by including all items measuring the theoretical constructs as input in cluster analysis (Dolnicar & Grün, 2008).”

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Hedonic-oriented consumers are more open to new experiences, seek variety, and have less self-control.

“It has been suggested that hedonic-oriented consumers are more open to new experiences (Guido, 2006), seek variety (Olsen, Tudoran, Honkanen, & Verplanken, 2016), and have less self-control (Horwath, Hagmann, & Hartmann, 2020;Vosgerau et al., 2020).”

• cites Guido, 2006Not checked yet

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• cites Olsen et al., 2016 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Horwath et al., 2020 sourceNot checked yet

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Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Self-control is highly relevant for explaining or predicting healthy and unhealthy food consumption, with both direct and indirect effects on behavior.

“Self-control is highly relevant for explaining or predicting healthy and unhealthy food consumption (de Ridder et al., 2012;Tangney et al., 2004), with both direct and indirect effects on behavior (Hagger, Hankonen, et al., 2019;McCarthy, Collins, Flaherty, & McCarthy, 2017).”

• cites de Ridder et al., 2012 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Tangney et al., 2004 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Hagger et al., 2019Not checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The only other study investigating associations between trait self-control and functional food consumption is Barauskaite et al. (2018).

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Individual differences in self-control are related to health-harming consumption behaviors, including consumption of unhealthy foods.

“Individual differences in self-control are related to health-harming consumption behaviors, including consumption of unhealthy foods (for a review, see Stautz et al., 2018).”

• cites Stautz et al., 2018 sourceNot checked yet

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The relationship between universal values and domain-specific decision-making or behavior is complicated and mostly weak.

“However, the relationship between universal values and domainspecific decision-making or behavior is complicated and mostly weak (Cieciuch, 2017;Krystallis, Vassallo, & Chryssohoidis, 2012).”

• cites Cieciuch, 2017Not checked yet

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• cites Krystallis et al., 2012 sourceNot checked yet

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Healthfulness is one among several dimensions of food quality and food choices in consumers' minds.

“Healthfulness is one among several dimensions of food quality and food choices in consumers' minds (Grunert, 2010;Pollard, Steptoe, & Wardle, 1998;Steptoe et al., 1995).”

• cites Grunert, 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Pollard et al., 1998 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Steptoe et al., 1995 sourceNot checked yet

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Convenience orientation is positively associated with hedonism or sensory appeal.

“Previous studies suggest that convenience orientation is positively associated with hedonism or sensory appeal (Fotopoulos, Krystallis, Vassallo, & Pagiaslis, 2009;Pula, Parks, & Ross, 2014).”

• cites Fotopoulos et al., 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Pula et al., 2014 sourceNot checked yet

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Health-related motives or values are associated with functional food behavior, and health motivation is a significant predictor of willingness to buy functional foods.

“Health-related motives or values are also associated with functional food behavior (Brečić et al., 2014;Pappalardo & Lusk, 2016;Vorage et al., 2020) and health motivation is a significant predictor of willingness to buy functional foods (Hauser, Nussbeck, & Jonas, 2013;Siegrist, Shi, Giusto, & Hartmann, 2015).”

• cites Brečić et al., 2014 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Pappalardo & Lusk, 2016Not checked yet

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• cites Hauser et al., 2013 sourceNot checked yet

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Consumers engaged in health-promoting behaviors, such as healthy eating, exercise higher levels of self-control.

“It has been suggested that consumers engaged in health-promoting behaviors, such as healthy eating, exercise higher levels of self-control (de Ridder et al., 2012;Hagger, Gucciardi, et al., 2019;Hankonen, Kinnunen, Absetz, & Jallinoja, 2013).”

• cites de Ridder et al., 2012 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Hagger et al., 2019Not checked yet

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• cites Hankonen et al., 2013 sourceNot checked yet

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High levels of self-control imply utilitarian or healthy consumption whereas low levels of self-control suggest hedonic consumption, although exceptions exist.

“As such, high levels of selfcontrol would imply utilitarian or healthy consumption whereas low levels of self-control would suggest hedonic consumption, although exceptions exist (e.g., Salmon, Fennis, de Ridder, Adriaanse, & De Vet, 2014).”

• cites Salmon et al., 2014 sourceNot checked yet

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Self-control is a facet of conscientiousness within the Big Five personality framework and is associated with conformity in Schwartz' theory of basic values.

“It has been suggested that self-control is a facet of conscientiousness within the Big Five personality framework (Roberts, Chernyshenko, Stark, & Goldberg, 2005;Tangney et al., 2004) and associated with conformity in Schwartz' theory of basic values (Schwartz, 2012).”

• cites Roberts et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Tangney et al., 2004 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Schwartz, 2012 sourceNot checked yet

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Consumers are increasingly concerned about convenience, a huge trend in the food industry.

“Aside from hedonic eating value, consumers are increasingly concerned about convenience-a huge trend in the food industry (Bleiel, 2010).”

• cites Bleiel, 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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Consumers are drawn to the pleasurable sensory attributes of foods, and good taste is a particularly important motive behind food choices, including functional foods.

“Consumers are drawn to the pleasurable sensory attributes of foods (Lusk & Briggeman, 2009), and good taste is a particularly important motive behind food choices (Honkanen & Frewer, 2009;Januszewska, Pieniak, & Verbeke, 2011;Markovina et al., 2015), including functional foods (Urala & Lähteenmäki, 2003;Verbeke, 2006).”

• cites Lusk & Briggeman, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Honkanen & Frewer, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Urala & Lähteenmäki, 2003Not checked yet

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Convenience-oriented consumers are more positive toward and more prone to consume functional foods.

“results suggest that convenience-oriented consumers are more positive toward and more prone to consume functional foods.”

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Respondents were randomly selected from a pool of prerecruited members of YouGov, a reputed research agency.

“Respondents were randomly selected from a pool of prerecruited members of YouGov, a reputed research agency.”

May combine two claims.

Factor loadings ranged from 0.72 to 0.88 and internal reliability scores exceeded the lower threshold of Cronbach's alpha of 0.70.

“Factor loadings ranged from 0.72 to 0.88 and internal reliability scores exceeded the lower threshold of Cronbach's α (i.e., 0.70; Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2014).”

• cites Hair et al., 2014Not checked yet

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Most previous segmentation studies regarding functional food include smaller, nonrepresentative samples or apply factor-clustering techniques.

“Finally, most of the previous segmentation studies regarding functional food include smaller, nonrepresentative samples (e.g., Annunziata & Pascale, 2009;Ares & Gámbaro, 2007;van der Zanden, van Kleef, de Wijk, & van Trijp, 2015) or apply factorclustering techniques (Brečić, Mesić, & Cerjak, 2017;Szakály, Szente, Kövér, Polereczki, & Szigeti, 2012) (for a critical account of factor clustering, see”

• cites Annunziata & Pascale, 2009Not checked yet

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• cites Ares & Gámbaro, 2007 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Brečić et al., 2017 sourceNot checked yet

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The careless consumer resembles the uninvolved consumer: exhibiting little demand for novelties and being conservative in their food choices.

“Similar to Szakály et al. (2012), the careless consumer in the present study resembles the uninvolved consumer: exhibiting little demand for novelties and being conservative in their food choices.”

• cites Szakály et al. (2012) sourceNot checked yet

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Food innovativeness and self-control are two traits imperative to understanding consumers' food choices.

“Overall, the roles of food innovativeness and self-control add nuance to the existing literature in the domain of functional food behavior and represent two traits imperative to understanding consumers' food choices.”

May combine two claims.

The convenience-oriented consumer's lack of food self-control entails both an admission of having difficulty in abandoning bad food habits and a desire to improve their self-discipline when choosing what to eat.

“Their lack of food self-control entails both an admission of having difficulty in abandoning bad food habits and at the same time a desire to improve their self-discipline when choosing what to eat.”

May combine two claims.

The person-centered approach sheds light on intraindividual combinations of values and traits and how different consumer profiles relate to functional food behavior and food consumption habits.

“Our person-centered approach also contributes by shedding light on the intraindividual combinations of values and traits and how different consumer profiles relate to functional food behavior and food consumption habits.”

May combine two claims.

Weight-concerned people, and women in particular, generally find it difficult to control their food intake.

“Previous studies have demonstrated that weight-concerned people-and women in particular-generally find it difficult to control their food intake (van der Laan, de Ridder, Charbonnier, Viergever, & Smeets, 2014) and that self-control is predictive of weight loss success (Will Crescioni et al., 2011).”

• cites van der Laan, de Ridder, Charbonnier, Viergever, & Smeets, 2014Not checked yet

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Self-control is predictive of weight loss success.

“Previous studies have demonstrated that weight-concerned people-and women in particular-generally find it difficult to control their food intake (van der Laan, de Ridder, Charbonnier, Viergever, & Smeets, 2014) and that self-control is predictive of weight loss success (Will Crescioni et al., 2011).”

• cites Will Crescioni et al., 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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Previous studies have repeatedly reported that women are the main target of functional foods owing to their being more reflective about food and health issues compared with men.

“This agrees with the results of previous studies that have repeatedly reported that women are the main target of functional foods owing to their being more reflective about food and health issues compared with men (Siró et al., 2008).”

• cites Siró et al., 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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The enthusiastic beauty-oriented consumers often purchased functional foods and were particularly motivated for beauty reasons as opposed to health per se.

“These consumers often purchased functional foods and were particularly motivated for beauty reasons as opposed to health per se.”

• cites Sparke and Menrad (2009)Not checked yet

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The identification of three consumer segments confirms and adds to previous research.

“This study identifies three consumer segments-the convenienceoriented (41.2%), the self-controlled (24.0%), and the careless (34.8%)-which both confirms and adds to previous research.”

May combine two claims.

The convenience-oriented segment outnumbers the other two segments and represents potentially a market of significant size that functional food producers can target.

“It is worth noting that this segment also outnumbers the other two segments and thus represents not only a niche market but potentially a market of significant size that functional food producers can target.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Sparke and Menrad (2009) identified a segment named the enthusiastic beauty-oriented.

“This is similar to Sparke and Menrad (2009), who identified a segment named the enthusiastic beauty-oriented.”

• cites Sparke and Menrad (2009)Not checked yet

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Food choice motives tend to vary between countries.

“Since food consumption patterns (Gracia & Albisu, 2001) and food choice motives (Prescott, Young, O'Neill, Yau, & Stevens, 2002;Sparke & Menrad, 2009) tend to vary between countries, future research should include consumers from several countries to validate these findings.”

• cites Prescott, Young, O'Neill, Yau, & Stevens, 2002Not checked yet

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• cites Sparke & Menrad, 2009Not checked yet

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The study was conducted in accordance with the Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees' Guidelines for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences, Humanities, Law and Theology.

“We wish to confirm that the study was conducted in accordance with the Norwegian National Research Ethics Committees' Guidelines for Research Ethics in the Social Sciences, Humanities, Law and Theology.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The study examined 30 validation indices to determine the most appropriate number of clusters.

“To justify this decision, we examined 30 validation indices to determine the most appropriate number of clusters (R package NbClust; Charrad, Ghazzali, Boiteau, & Niknafs, 2014).”

• cites Charrad, Ghazzali, Boiteau, & Niknafs, 2014Not checked yet

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Although self-controlled consumers actively seek new food ideas and find pleasure in new food experiences, their weaker convenience orientation may explain why they do not consider functional foods more favorable.

“Although self-controlled consumers actively seek new food ideas and find pleasure in new food experiences-a trait previously associated with proneness to consuming functional foods (cf., Huotilainen et al., 2006)-their weaker convenience orientation may explain why they do not consider functional foods more favorable (Brečić et al., 2017).”

• cites Huotilainen et al., 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Brečić et al., 2017 sourceNot checked yet

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In the present study, the self-controlled consumer has similarities with both the rational and the adventurous consumer, such as elevated responsiveness to novelty and attraction toward new food products, as well as an emphasis on health.

“Compared to the results of some previous studies using the FRL (e.g., Buckley, Cowan, McCarthy, & O'Sullivan, 2005;Szakály et al., 2012), in the present study, the self-controlled consumer has similarities with both the rational and the adventurous consumer, such as elevated responsiveness to novelty and attraction toward new food products, as well as an emphasis on health.”

• cites Buckley, Cowan, McCarthy, & O'Sullivan, 2005Not checked yet

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• cites Szakály et al., 2012 sourceNot checked yet

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The identification and characteristics of the self-controlled consumer segment is a significant contribution of this study.

“The identification and characteristics of the self-controlled consumer segment is a significant contribution of this study.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

With a large sample size, the study is expected to yield more valid and reliable results.

“With a large sample size, we expect that our study will yield more valid and reliable results, reinforcing the practical implications for functional food producers and marketers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The stronger weight management concern of the convenience-oriented consumer can possibly be attributed to an underlying motivation to achieve or maintain a desired appearance and may not necessarily reflect a general health motive.

“The stronger weight management concern of the convenienceoriented consumer can possibly be attributed to an underlying motivation to achieve or maintain a desired appearance and may not necessarily reflect a general health motive.”

May combine two claims.

Self-controlled consumers' high level of food self-control, coupled with their emphasis on health importance, may explain their higher consumption frequency of naturally healthy foods and their modest consumption of functional foods, ready-made foods, sweets, and snack foods.

“Their high level of food selfcontrol, coupled with their emphasis on health importance, may therefore explain their higher consumption frequency of naturally healthy foods, such as fruit, berries, and vegetables, and their modest consumption of functional foods, ready-made foods, sweets, and snack foods.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The inconsistency between being most positive toward functional foods and consuming sweets and snack foods the most may be due to low levels of self-control regarding food.

“This inconsistency may be due to low levels of self-control regarding food.”