Potential and costs of carbon dioxide removal by enhanced weathering of rocks
Open accessAbstract
The chemical weathering of rocks currently absorbs about 1.1 Gt CO 2 a −1 being mainly stored as bicarbonate in the ocean. An enhancement of this slow natural process could remove substantial amounts of CO 2 from the atmosphere, aiming to offset some unavoidable anthropogenic emissions in order to comply with the Paris Agreement, while at the same time it may decrease ocean acidification. We provide the first comprehensive assessment of economic costs, energy requirements, technical parameterization, and global and regional carbon removal potential. The crucial parameters defining this potential are the grain size and weathering rates. The main uncertainties about the potential relate to weathering rates and rock mass that can be integrated into the soil. The discussed results do not specifically address the enhancement of weathering through microbial processes, feedback of geogenic nutrient release, and bioturbation. We do not only assess dunite rock, predominantly bearing olivine (in the form of forsterite) as the mineral that has been previously proposed to be best suited for carbon removal, but focus also on basaltic rock to minimize potential negative side effects. Our results show that enhanced weathering is an option for carbon dioxide removal that could be competitive already at 60 US $ t −1 CO 2 removed for dunite, but only at 200 US $ t −1 CO 2 removed for basalt. The potential carbon removal on cropland areas could be as large as 95 Gt CO 2 a −1 for dunite and 4.9 Gt CO 2 a −1 for basalt. The best suited locations are warm and humid areas, particularly in India, Brazil, South-East Asia and China, where almost 75% of the global potential can be realized. This work presents a techno-economic assessment framework, which also allows for the incorporation of further processes.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Rock grain size and weathering rates influence removal potential and cost of enhanced weathering.
“Furthermore, the investigation highlighted the dimensions that influence removal potential and cost, mainly being rock grain size and weathering rates.”
From Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a review (2020) · cites this paper as Strefler et al. 2018
Strefler et al. results are inline and support Fuss et al. estimates in terms of removal potential and costs.
“The results are inline and support the estimates presented by Fuss et al. in terms of removal potential as well as costs.”
From Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a review (2020) · cites this paper as Strefler et al. 2018
Climates that are warm and humid with lands that lack sufficient nutrients are the most appropriate areas for enhanced weathering activities.
“Finally, the study indicated that climates that are warm and humid with lands that lack sufficient nutrients are the most appropriate areas for enhanced weathering activities (Strefler et al. 2018).”
From Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a review (2020) · cites this paper as Strefler et al. 2018
Rock grinding to reduce particle size and maximise CDR is the primary energy consuming operation in ERW.
“Rock grinding to reduce particle size and maximise CDR is the primary energy consuming operation in ERW 22,23,73 .”
From Potential for large-scale CO2 removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
For the USA, mining cost is 6.99 $ t-1 as obtained from prior analysis.
“For the USA, mining cost is 6.99 $ t -1 as obtained from prior analysis 22 .”
From Potential for large-scale CO2 removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands (2020) · cites this paper as [22]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Farming the planet: 1. Geographic distribution of global agricultural lands in the year 2000
Ramankutty, N., Evan, A. T., Monfreda, C., & Foley, J. A. (2008) · Global Biogeochemical Cycles · doi:10.1029/2007gb002952 · Cited by 1,942 · see citing works
Biophysical and economic limits to negative CO2 emissions
Smith, P., Davis, S. J., Creutzig, F., Fuss, S., Minx, J., Gabrielle, B., Kato, E., Jackson, R. B., Cowie, A., Kriegler, E., et al. (2016) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate2870 · Cited by 1,440 · see citing works
Self-citationWhite, A. F., & Brantley, S. L. (2003) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2003.03.001 · Cited by 1,196 · see citing works
Basalt weathering laws and the impact of basalt weathering on the global carbon cycle
Dessert, C., Dupré, B., Gaillardet, J., François, L., & Allègre, C. J. (2003) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2002.10.001 · Cited by 998 · see citing works
Energy system transformations for limiting end-of-century warming to below 1.5 °C
Rogelj, J., Luderer, G., Pietzcker, R. C., Kriegler, E., Schaeffer, M., Krey, V., & Riahi, K. (2015) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate2572 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
Self-citationEdenhofer, O. (2015) · Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change eBooks · Cited by 835 · see citing works
Kinetics of Water-Rock Interaction
Brantley, S. L., White, A. F., & Kubicki, J. D. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73563-4 · Cited by 745 · see citing works
Hartmann, J., West, A. J., Renforth, P., Köhler, P., De La Rocha, C. L., Wolf‐Gladrow, D. A., Dürr, H. H., & Scheffran, J. (2013) · Reviews of Geophysics · doi:10.1002/rog.20004 · Cited by 717 · see citing works
Self-citationHydrologic Regulation of Chemical Weathering and the Geologic Carbon Cycle
Maher, K., & Chamberlain, C. P. (2014) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1250770 · Cited by 632 · see citing works
Shared Socio-Economic Pathways of the Energy Sector – Quantifying the Narratives
Bauer, N., Calvin, K., Emmerling, J., Fricko, O., Fujimori, S., Hilaire, J., Eom, J., Krey, V., Kriegler, E., Mouratiadou, I., et al. (2017) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2016.07.006 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Self-citationEnhanced Weathering: An Effective and Cheap Tool to Sequester Co2
Schuiling, R. D., & Krijgsman, P. (2006) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-005-3485-y · Cited by 403 · see citing works
Geoengineering potential of artificially enhanced silicate weathering of olivine
Köhler, P., Hartmann, J., & Wolf-Gladrow, D. A. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1000545107 · Cited by 384 · see citing works
Self-citationHartmann, J., Jansen, N., Dürr, H. H., Kempe, S., & Köhler, P. (2009) · Global and Planetary Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.07.007 · Cited by 382 · see citing works
Self-citationEnhanced weathering strategies for stabilizing climate and averting ocean acidification
Taylor, L. L., Quirk, J., Thorley, R. M. S., Kharecha, P. A., Hansen, J., Ridgwell, A., Lomas, M. R., Banwart, S. A., & Beerling, D. J. (2016) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/nclimate2882 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Maher, K. (2011) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.09.040 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Hartmann, J., Moosdorf, N., Lauerwald, R., Hinderer, M., & West, A. J. (2013) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/j.chemgeo.2013.10.025 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Self-citationKinetics of Mineral Dissolution
Brantley, S. L. (2008) · Kinetics of Water-Rock Interaction · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73563-4_5 · Cited by 349 · see citing works
Basalt weathering across scales
Navarre‐Sitchler, A. K., & Brantley, S. L. (2007) · Earth and Planetary Science Letters · doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.07.010 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
The potential of enhanced weathering in the UK
Renforth, P. (2012) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2012.06.011 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Farming with rocks and minerals: challenges and opportunities
van Straaten, P. (2006) · Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências · doi:10.1590/s0001-37652006000400009 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Hangx, S. J. T., & Spiers, C. J. (2009) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2009.07.001 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Mineral dissolution rates in plot-scale field and laboratory experiments
Swoboda-Colberg, N. G., & Drever, J. I. (1993) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/0009-2541(93)90118-3 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Carbon Dioxide Efficiency of Terrestrial Enhanced Weathering
Moosdorf, N., Renforth, P., & Hartmann, J. (2014) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es4052022 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Self-citationThe dissolution of olivine added to soil: Implications for enhanced weathering
Renforth, P., Pogge von Strandmann, P. A. E., & Henderson, G. M. (2015) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2015.05.016 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
ten Berge, H. F. M., van der Meer, H. G., Steenhuizen, J. W., Goedhart, P. W., Knops, P. C. M., & Verhagen, A. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0042098 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
Ramos, C. G., Querol, X., Oliveira, M. L. S., Pires, K. C. D. J., Kautzmann, R. M., & Oliveira, L. F. S. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.12.070 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Leonardos, O. H., Fyfe, W. S., & Kronberg, B. I. (1987) · Chemical Geology · doi:10.1016/0009-2541(87)90143-4 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
A New Map of Global Ecological Land Units — An Ecophysiographic Stratification Approach.
Sayre, R. G., Dangermond, J., Frye, C., Vaughan, R., Aniello, P., Breyer, S., Cribbs, D., Hopkins, D., Nauman, R. S., Derrenbacher, B., et al. (2014) · Digital Access to Libraries · doi:10.13140/2.1.2167.8887 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Self-citationSchopka, H. H., Derry, L. A., & Arcilla, C. A. (2010) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2010.11.014 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
How will minerals feed the world in 2050?
Manning, D. A. C. (2015) · Proceedings of the Geologists Association · doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2014.12.005 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Economic Feasibility of Variable‐Rate Technology for Nitrogen on Corn
Thrikawala, S., Weersink, A. J., Fox, G., et al. (1999) · American Journal of Agricultural Economics · doi:10.2307/1244334 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Goldsmith, S. T., Carey, A. E., Johnson, B. M., Welch, S. A., Lyons, W. B., McDowell, W. H., & Pigott, J. S. (2009) · Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta · doi:10.1016/j.gca.2009.10.009 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Pneumoconiosis from Agricultural Dust Exposure among Young California Farmworkers
Schenker, M. B., Pinkerton, K. E., Mitchell, D. C., Vallyathan, V., Elvine-Kreis, B., & Green, F. H. Y. (2009) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.0800144 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Controls of atmospheric O2 and CO2: past, present, and future
Garrels, R. M., Lerman, A., & Mackenzie, F. T. (1976) · American Scientist · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Superfine and Ultrafine Grinding— A Literature Survey
Orumwense, O. A., & Forssberg, E. (1992) · Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review · doi:10.1080/08827509208914216 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Macpherson, C. G., Hilton, D. R., Sinton, J. M., Poreda, R. J., & Craig, H. (1998) · Geology · doi:10.1130/0091-7613(1998)026 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Engineering Controls for Selected Silica and Dust Exposures in the Construction Industry -- A Review
Flynn, M. R., & Susi, P. (2003) · Applied Occupational and Environmental Hygiene · doi:10.1080/10473220301406 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Data Fitting Techniques with Applications to Mineral Dissolution Kinetics
Bandstra, J. Z., & Brantley, S. L. (2007) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73563-4_6 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Edenhofer, O. (2014) · Kent Academic Repository (University of Kent) · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Ciceri, D., de Oliveira, M., Stokes, M. R., Skorina, T., & Allanore, A. (2016) · Minerals Engineering · doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2016.11.016 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Dissolution of Ground Basalt and Its Effect on Oxisol Chemical Properties and Cocoa Growth
Anda, M., Shamshuddin, J., Ishak, C. F., et al. (2009) · Soil Science · doi:10.1097/ss.0b013e3181a56928 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Anda, M., Suryani, E., Husnain, et al. (2015) · Soil and Tillage Research · doi:10.1016/j.still.2015.01.005 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
CO2 diffusion into pore spaces limits weathering rate of an experimental basalt landscape
van Haren, J. L. M., Dontsova, K. M., Barron‐Gafford, G. A., Troch, P. A., Chorover, J., DeLong, S. B., Breshears, D. D., Huxman, T. E., Pelletier, J. D., SALESKA, S. R., et al. (2017) · Geology · doi:10.1130/g38569.1 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 4
- Ciais P ed Stocker T F, 2013, Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
- Garrels R M, 1976, Am. Sci., 64, 306
- Brown T J, 2010, Underground Mining of Aggregates
- ©OECD/IEA, 2015, Coal Information
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Negative emissions—Part 2: Costs, potentials and side effects
Fuss, S., Lamb, W. F., Callaghan, M. W., Hilaire, J., Creutzig, F., Amann, T., Beringer, T., de Oliveira Garcia, W., Hartmann, J., Khanna, T., et al. (2018) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aabf9f · Cited by 1,525 · see citing works
“…et al 2009, House et al 2007), as well as regional to global scale model assessments (Hangx and Spiers 2009, Hauck et al 2016, House et al 2007, Köhler et al 2010, Taylor et al 2016, Köhler et al 2013, Strefler et al 2018a) and plot-scale experiments (Montserrat et al 2017, ten Berge et al 2012).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationStrategies for mitigation of climate change: a review
Fawzy, S., Osman, A. I., Doran, J., & Rooney, D. W. (2020) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-020-01059-w · Cited by 1,522 · see citing works
Potential for large-scale CO2 removal via enhanced rock weathering with croplands
Beerling, D. J., Kantzas, E. P., Lomas, M. R., Wade, P., Eufrasio, R. M., Renforth, P., Sarkar, B., Andrews, M. G., James, R. H., Pearce, C. R., et al. (2020) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-020-2448-9 · Cited by 700 · see citing works
Direct air capture: process technology, techno-economic and socio-political challenges
Erans, M., Sanz-Pérez, E. S., Hanak, D. P., Clulow, Z., Reiner, D. M., & Mutch, G. A. (2022) · Energy & Environmental Science · doi:10.1039/d1ee03523a · Cited by 688 · see citing works
Life cycle assessment of carbon dioxide removal technologies: a critical review
Terlouw, T., Bauer, C., Rosa, L., & Mazzotti, M. (2021) · Energy & Environmental Science · doi:10.1039/d0ee03757e · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Negative emissions—Part 3: Innovation and upscaling
Nemet, G. F., Callaghan, M. W., Creutzig, F., Fuss, S., Hartmann, J., Hilaire, J., Lamb, W. F., Minx, J. C., Rogers, S., & Smith, P. (2018) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aabff4 · Cited by 343 · see citing works
“Studies also draw on data sets of surface rock types to assess carbon removal potentials if kinetics are understood (Moosdorf et al 2014, Strefler et al 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationUnited Nations Environment Programme (2023) · United Nations Environment Programme eBooks · doi:10.59117/20.500.11822/43922 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
The role of soil in regulation of climate
Lal, R., Monger, C., Nave, L., & Smith, P. (2021) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2021.0084 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Bach, L. T., Gill, S. J., Rickaby, R. E. M., Gore, S., & Renforth, P. (2019) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2019.00007 · Cited by 445 · see citing works
“However, preliminary cost analyses suggest that they are within the range of other NETs [$10–500 per ton of CO2 (Strefler et al., 2018; Pacala et al., 2019)].”
BackgroundKelland, M. E., Wade, P. W., Lewis, A. L., Taylor, L. L., Sarkar, B., Andrews, M. G., Lomas, M. R., Cotton, T. E. A., Kemp, S. J., James, R. H., et al. (2020) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.15089 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
“…sets of RTM simulations support the application of larger particle sizes for Oregon basalt for carbon removal than are typically adopted in ERW numerical studies—or example, 10–20 µm diameter (Köhler et al., 2010; Moosdorf, Renforth, & Hartmann, 2014; Strefler et al., 2018; Taylor et al., 2016).”
MethodRemineralizing soils? The agricultural usage of silicate rock powders: A review
Swoboda, P., Döring, T. F., & Hamer, M. (2021) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.150976 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
“Apart from the factors outlined in Section 2, the agronomic effectiveness of SRPs depends upon the costs for mining, grinding, transport and spreading them on the fields, with grinding being the most energy and thus cost intensive factor (Strefler et al., 2018; van Straaten, 2006).”
BackgroundBaumstark, L., Bauer, N., Benke, F., Bertram, C., Bi, S., Gong, C. C., Dietrich, J. P., Dirnaichner, A., Giannousakis, A., Hilaire, J., et al. (2021) · Geoscientific model development · doi:10.5194/gmd-14-6571-2021 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Self-citationManaging for soil carbon sequestration: Let’s get realistic
Schlesinger, W. H., & Amundson, R. (2018) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.14478 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Diverse carbon dioxide removal approaches could reduce impacts on the energy–water–land system
Fuhrman, J., Bergero, C., Weber, M., Monteith, S., Wang, F. M., Clarens, A. F., Doney, S. C., Shobe, W., & McJeon, H. C. (2023) · Nature Climate Change · doi:10.1038/s41558-023-01604-9 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Potential CO2 removal from enhanced weathering by ecosystem responses to powdered rock
Goll, D. S., Ciais, P., Amann, T., Buermann, W., Chang, J., Eker, S., Hartmann, J., Janssens, I., Li, W., Obersteiner, M., et al. (2021) · Nature Geoscience · doi:10.1038/s41561-021-00798-x · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Self-citationLewis, A. L., Sarkar, B., Wade, P., Kemp, S. J., Hodson, M. E., Taylor, L. L., Yeong, K. L., Davies, K., Nelson, P. N., Bird, M. I., et al. (2021) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2021.105023 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“(2)): Land-based ERW can involve amending forest (K ¨ ohler et al., 2010; Strefler et al., 2018; Taylor et al., 2015) and cropland (Beerling et al, 2018, 2020; Kantola et al., 2017) soils with finely-crushed silicate rocks.”
Kinetics of Olivine Weathering in Seawater: An Experimental Study
Fuhr, M., Geilert, S., Schmidt, M., Liebetrau, V., Vogt, C., Ledwig, B., & Wallmann, K. (2022) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.831587 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Enhanced Weathering and related element fluxes – a cropland mesocosm approach
Amann, T., Hartmann, J., Struyf, E., Garcia, W. D. O., Fischer, E. K., Janssens, I. A., Meire, P. M., & Schoelynck, J. (2020) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-17-103-2020 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Self-citationMitigation Pathways Compatible with 1.5°C in the Context of Sustainable Development
IPCC (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009157940.004 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Lefebvre, D., Goglio, P., Williams, A., Manning, D. A. C., de Azevedo, A. C., Bergmann, M., Meersmans, J., & Smith, P. (2019) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.06.099 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“3 t CO2/t of basalt (Beerling et al., 2018; Kantola et al., 2017; Strefler et al., 2018) results from Equation (5) using different average values for CaO and MgO content and a value of 1.”
Potential implications of carbon dioxide removal for the sustainable development goals
Honegger, M., Michaelowa, A., & Roy, J. (2020) · Climate Policy · doi:10.1080/14693062.2020.1843388 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“Uncertainties remain regarding the effective rate of weathering under varying conditions (EASAC, 2018; Hartmann et al., 2013; Strefler et al., 2018)”
BackgroundVicca, S., Goll, D. S., Hagens, M., Hartmann, J., Janssens, I. A., Neubeck, A., Peñuelas, J., Poblador, S., Rijnders, J., Sardans, J., et al. (2021) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.15993 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Self-citationHow do we best synergize climate mitigation actions to co‐benefit biodiversity?
Smith, P., Arneth, A., Barnes, D. K. A., Ichii, K., Marquet, P. A., Popp, A., Pörtner, H., Rogers, A. D., Scholes, R. J., Strassburg, B. B. N., et al. (2021) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.16056 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
“Construction waste and waste materials can also be used as a source material (technical potential: 3.7– 95 Gt CO2e year −1; Lenton, 2014; Strefler et al., 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialVienne, A., Poblador, S., Portillo‐Estrada, M., Hartmann, J., Ijiehon, S., Wade, P., & Vicca, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.869456 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the cost of terrestrial EWwas recently estimated to be competitive to those of other NETs, such as Direct Air Carbon Capture and Storage (DACCS) (Strefler et al., 2018; Beerling et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAssessing the technical aspects of ocean-alkalinity-enhancement approaches
Eisaman, M. D., Geilert, S., Renforth, P., Bastianini, L., Campbell, J. S., Dale, A. W., Foteinis, S., Grasse, P., Hawrot, O., Löscher, C. R., et al. (2023) · State of the Planet · doi:10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-3-2023 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Carbon dioxide removal technologies are not born equal
Strefler, J., Bauer, N., Humpenöder, F., Klein, D., Popp, A., & Kriegler, E. (2021) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac0a11 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
“For global mean warming to remain well below 2 ◦C above pre-industrial times, the absence of CDR would require unprecedented emission reduction rates associated with high economic costs (Strefler et al 2018b).”
BackgroundSelf-citationEnvironmental sustainability of negative emissions technologies: A review
Jeswani, H. K., Saharudin, D. M., & Azapagic, A. (2022) · Sustainable Production and Consumption · doi:10.1016/j.spc.2022.06.028 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Xiong, L., Bai, X., Zhao, C., Li, Y., Tan, Q., Luo, G., Wu, L., Chen, F., Li, C., Chen, R., et al. (2022) · Earth s Future · doi:10.1029/2022ef002746 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Negative-emissions technology portfolios to meet the 1.5 °C target
Rueda, O., Mogollón, J. M., Tukker, A., & Scherer, L. (2021) · Global Environmental Change · doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102238 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“As Hilaire et al. (2019) explain, recent studies, such as Chen and Tavoni (2013), Holz et al. (2018), Marcucci et al. (2017), and Strefler et al. (2015, 2018)), are increasingly considering other NETs in climate mitigation models.”
ResultIncreased carbon capture by a silicate-treated forested watershed affected by acid deposition
Taylor, L. L., Driscoll, C. T., Groffman, P. M., Rau, G. H., Blum, J. D., & Beerling, D. J. (2021) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-18-169-2021 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
A comparative analysis of the efficiency, timing, and permanence of CO 2 removal pathways
Chiquier, S., Patrizio, P., Bui, M., Sunny, N., & Dowell, N. M. (2022) · Energy & Environmental Science · doi:10.1039/d2ee01021f · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Rinder, T., & von Hagke, C. (2021) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128178 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Life Cycle Assessment of Coastal Enhanced Weathering for Carbon Dioxide Removal from Air
Foteinis, S., Campbell, J. S., & Renforth, P. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.2c08633 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Decarbonizing hard-to-abate heavy industries: Current status and pathways towards net-zero future
Kumar, A., Tiwari, A. K., & Milani, D. (2024) · Process Safety and Environmental Protection · doi:10.1016/j.psep.2024.04.107 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Nano- to Global-Scale Uncertainties in Terrestrial Enhanced Weathering
Calabrese, S., Wild, B., Bertagni, M. B., Bourg, I. C., White, C. E., Aburto, F. A., Cipolla, G., Noto, L., & Porporato, A. M. (2022) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.2c03163 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Power, I. M., Dipple, G. M., Bradshaw, P. M. D., & Harrison, A. L. (2020) · International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2019.102895 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Fuhrman, J., McJeon, H. C., Doney, S. C., Shobe, W., & Clarens, A. F. (2019) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2019.00011 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Low, S., Baum, C. M., & Sovacool, B. K. (2022) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2022.102594 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Optimal design of negative emission hybrid renewable energy systems with biochar production
Li, L., Yao, Z., You, S., Wang, C., Chong, C., & Wang, X. (2019) · Applied Energy · doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.03.183 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Adun, H. H., Ampah, J. D., Bamisile, O., & Hu, Y. (2024) · Sustainable Production and Consumption · doi:10.1016/j.spc.2024.01.004 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Support for the Deployment of Climate Engineering: A Comparison of Ten Different Technologies
Jobin, M., & Siegrist, M. (2020) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/risa.13462 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Global Carbon Dioxide Removal Potential of Waste Materials From Metal and Diamond Mining
Bullock, L. A., James, R. H., Matter, J., Renforth, P., & Teagle, D. A. H. (2021) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2021.694175 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“Natural weathering processes are slow, occurring over geologic timescales of tens of thousands of years, and the amount of CO2 taken up by weathering worldwide (∼1.1 Gt CO2 year−1; Strefler et al., 2018) is a fraction of the annual increase in the atmospheric CO2 inventory (∼8 Gt CO2 year −1, Rapp, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluentialChange, I. P. O. C. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009157988.008 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
The Science, Engineering, and Validation of Marine Carbon Dioxide Removal and Storage
Doney, S. C., Wolfe, W. H., McKee, D. C., & Fuhrman, J. (2024) · Annual Review of Marine Science · doi:10.1146/annurev-marine-040523-014702 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Geochemical Negative Emissions Technologies: Part I. Review
Campbell, J. S., Foteinis, S., Furey, V., Hawrot, O., Pike, D., Aeschlimann, S., Maesano, C. N., Reginato, P., Goodwin, D., Looger, L. L., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.879133 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“−1 from the atmosphere, primarily stored as ocean bicarbonate (Strefler et al., 2018).”
BackgroundBeyond carbon pricing: policy levers for negative emissions technologies
Cox, E., & Edwards, N. R. (2019) · Climate Policy · doi:10.1080/14693062.2019.1634509 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“Brazil could be suitable for ERW, because it has highly-weathered soils, a hot and humid climate, and large tracts of agricultural land (Strefler et al., 2018).”
BackgroundEufrasio, R. M., Kantzas, E. P., Edwards, N. R., Holden, P. B., Pollitt, H., Mercure, J.-F., Koh, S. C. L., & Beerling, D. J. (2022) · Communications Earth & Environment · doi:10.1038/s43247-022-00436-3 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Climate policy for a net-zero future: ten recommendations for Direct Air Capture
Sovacool, B. K., Baum, C. M., Low, S., Roberts, C., & Steinhauser, J. (2022) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac77a4 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Yüzbaşıoğlu, A. E., Tatarhan, A. H., & Gezerman, A. O. (2021) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08257 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“Another issue is the problem of finding a suitable place for the disposal of carbon dioxide [62].”
BackgroundReershemius, T., Kelland, M., Jordan, J. S., Davis, I., D’Ascanio, R., Kalderon-Asael, B., Asael, D., Suhrhoff, T. J., Epihov, D. Z., Beerling, D. J., et al. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c03609 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Combating Climate Change Through Enhanced Weathering of Agricultural Soils
Andrews, M. G., & Taylor, L. L. (2019) · Elements · doi:10.2138/gselements.15.4.253 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Soil core study indicates limited CO2 removal by enhanced weathering in dry croplands in the UK
Buckingham, F., Henderson, G. M., Holdship, P., & Renforth, P. (2022) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105482 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Deployment of clean energy technologies towards carbon neutrality under resource constraints
Guo, J., Zhu, K., & Cheng, Y. (2024) · Energy · doi:10.1016/j.energy.2024.131012 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Public perceptions on carbon removal from focus groups in 22 countries
Low, S., Fritz, L., Baum, C. M., & Sovacool, B. K. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-47853-w · Cited by 65 · see citing works
River chemistry constraints on the carbon capture potential of surficial enhanced rock weathering
Zhang, S., Planavsky, N. J., Katchinoff, J. A. R., Raymond, P. A., Kanzaki, Y., Reershemius, T., & Reinhard, C. T. (2022) · Limnology and Oceanography · doi:10.1002/lno.12244 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
The crucial interactions between climate and soil
Certini, G., & Scalenghe, R. (2022) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159169 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Enhanced weathering potentials—the role of in situ CO2 and grain size distribution
Amann, T., Hartmann, J., Hellmann, R., Pedrosa, E. T., & Malik, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.929268 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationButnar, I., Li, P., Strachan, N. D., Portugal‐Pereira, J., Gambhir, A., & Smith, P. (2019) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ab5c3e · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“…(2014),Muratori et al (2016, 2017a, 2017b), Calvin et al (2019) Bauer (2005), Klein et al (2014), Kriegler et al (2013), Luderer et al (2015, 2018), Strefler et al (2018), Heck et al (2018) Fujimori et al (2014a, 2014b, 2012, 2015, 2017, 2018), Hasegawa et al (2017), Ito and Inatomi (2012), Liu et…”
Can arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi speed up carbon sequestration by enhanced weathering?
Verbruggen, E., Struyf, E., & Vicca, S. (2021) · Plants People Planet · doi:10.1002/ppp3.10179 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
The environmental controls on efficiency of enhanced rock weathering in soils
Deng, H., Sonnenthal, E., Arora, B., Breunig, H. M., Brodie, E., Kleber, M., Spycher, N. F., & Nico, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-36113-4 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
An ecosystem of carbon dioxide removal reviews – part 1: direct air CO 2 capture and storage
van der Spek, M. W., Bardow, A., Baum, C. M., Bolongaro, V., Dufour‐Décieux, V., Esch, C., Fritz, L., Garcia, S., Hamann, C., Hondeborg, D., et al. (2025) · Energy & Environmental Science · doi:10.1039/d5ee01732g · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationSustainable scale-up of negative emissions technologies and practices: where to focus
Cobo, S., Negri, V., Valente, A., Reiner, D. M., Hamelin, L., Dowell, N. M., & Guillén‐Gosálbez, G. (2022) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/acacb3 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
“Natural weathering processes can be accelerated by grinding silicate and carbonate rocks to small grain sizes and spreading them in warm and humid regions (Strefler et al 2018, Zhang et al 2022).”
BackgroundInfluentialSatterfield, T. A., Nawaz, S., & St‐Laurent, G. P. (2023) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-023-03483-7 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“…also avoid frequent and fierce public debates about energy transportation problems (e.g., pipelines), and may rely on off-grid power generation (Strefler et al., 2018) or reduce the worry that such systems might produce more CO2 than is captured (Fajardy et al., 2019; Hurd et al., 2022;…”
BackgroundIncreasing biomass demand enlarges negative forest nutrient budget areas in wood export regions
Garcia, W. D. O., Amann, T., & Hartmann, J. (2018) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-018-22728-5 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Self-citationIdeas and perspectives: Synergies from co-deployment of negative emission technologies
Amann, T., & Hartmann, J. (2019) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-16-2949-2019 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“, 2014), which could enable the use of smaller grain sizes for EW, enhancing its potential, which strongly depends on the grain size (Strefler et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationCarbonation, Cementation, and Stabilization of Ultramafic Mine Tailings
Power, I., Paulo, C., Long, H., Lockhart, J., Stubbs, A. R., French, D., & Caldwell, R. J. (2021) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c01570 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Public perception and acceptance of negative emission technologies – framing effects in Switzerland
Wenger, A., Stauffacher, M., & Dallo, I. (2021) · Climatic Change · doi:10.1007/s10584-021-03150-9 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
de Oliveira Garcia, W., Amann, T., Hartmann, J., Karstens, K., Popp, A., Boysen, L. R., Smith, P., & Goll, D. (2019) · doi:10.5194/bg-2019-386 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Self-citationYan, Y., Dong, X., Li, R., Zhang, Y., Yan, S., Guan, X., Yang, Q., Chen, L., Fang, Y., Zhang, W., et al. (2023) · CATENA · doi:10.1016/j.catena.2023.107031 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Perspectives and challenges of marine carbon dioxide removal
Oschlies, A., Bach, L. T., Fennel, K., Gattuso, J., & Mengis, N. (2025) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2024.1506181 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Geerts, L. J. J., Hylén, A., & Meysman, F. J. R. (2025) · Biogeosciences · doi:10.5194/bg-22-355-2025 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“Flipkens et al. (2021).”
Stubbs, A. R., Paulo, C., Power, I., Wang, B., Zeyen, N., & Wilson, S. (2021) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2021.103554 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Rates of atmospheric CO2 capture using magnesium oxide powder
Rausis, K., Stubbs, A. R., Power, I., & Paulo, C. (2022) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2022.103701 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Holden, F., Davies, K., Bird, M. I., Hume, R., Green, H., Beerling, D. J., & Nelson, P. N. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176568 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Guo, F., Wang, Y., Zhu, H., Zhang, C., Sun, H., Fang, Z., Yang, J., Zhang, L., Mu, Y., Man, Y. B., et al. (2023) · Agricultural Systems · doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2023.103691 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Impact of Climate on the Global Capacity for Enhanced Rock Weathering on Croplands
Baek, S. H., Kanzaki, Y., Lora, J. M., Planavsky, N. J., Reinhard, C. T., & Zhang, S. (2023) · Earth s Future · doi:10.1029/2023ef003698 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“improved crop yields (from additional nutrient supply from rock feedstock), and (c) mitigation of ocean acidification (from addition of alkalinity), that make ERW socially desirable (Beerling et al., 2018; Strefler et al., 2018; Taylor et al., 2016).”
BackgroundInfluentialKemp, S. J., Lewis, A. L., & Rushton, J. C. (2022) · Applied Geochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.apgeochem.2022.105465 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Circularity within carbon capture networks: A review of capture and utilization technologies
Ghiat, I., Banu, A., Biçer, Y., Amhamed, A. I., & Al‐Ansari, T. A. (2025) · Journal of CO2 Utilization · doi:10.1016/j.jcou.2025.103075 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Vandeginste, V., Lim, C., & Ji, Y. (2024) · Minerals · doi:10.3390/min14010075 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Mesocosm experiments in ocean alkalinity enhancement research
Riebesell, U., Basso, D., Geilert, S., Dale, A. W., Kreuzburg, M., & Meysman, F. J. R. (2023) · State of the Planet · doi:10.5194/sp-2-oae2023-6-2023 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The Mining Industry’s Role in Enhanced Weathering and Mineralization for CO2 Removal
Power, I., Paulo, C., & Rausis, K. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c05081 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Abdalqadir, M. O., Hughes, D. J., Gomari, S. R., & Rafiq, U. (2024) · Environmental Science and Pollution Research · doi:10.1007/s11356-024-32498-5 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Such events can alter the soil’s pH and affect the availability of cations necessary for weathering reactions (Strefler et al. 2018).”
InfluentialMatos, S. V., Schleper, M. C., Hall, J. K., Baum, C. M., Low, S., & Sovacool, B. K. (2024) · International Journal of Operations & Production Management · doi:10.1108/ijopm-06-2024-0487 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Novel Carbon Dioxide Utilization Technologies: A Means to an End
Warsi, Y., Kabanov, V., Zhou, P., & Sinha, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Energy Research · doi:10.3389/fenrg.2020.574147 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Currently, novel CO2 utilization resembles solar industry, with multiple organizations and governments interested in its deployment (Strefler et al., 2018).”
BackgroundZhang, B., Kroeger, J., Planavsky, N. J., & Yao, Y. (2023) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.3c01658 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Methods for determining the CO2 removal capacity of enhanced weathering in agronomic settings
Almaraz, M., Bingham, N. L., Holzer, I., Geoghegan, E. K., Goertzen, H., Sohng, J., & Houlton, B. Z. (2022) · Frontiers in Climate · doi:10.3389/fclim.2022.970429 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Furthermore, finely grinding rock materials requires significant energy expenditures (Strefler et al., 2018) that may exceed CDR benefits (Lewis et al.”
BackgroundGuo, F., Sun, H., Yang, J., Zhang, L., Mu, Y., Wang, Y., & Wu, F. (2023) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166118 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Bauwhede, R. V. D., Muys, B., Vancampenhout, K., & Smolders, E. (2023) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2023.116734 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Dupla, X., Claustre, R., Bonvin, E., Graf, I., Bayon, R. L., & Grand, S. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.176297 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Hamedi, H., Gonzales‐Calienes, G., & Shadbahr, J. (2025) · Clean Technologies · doi:10.3390/cleantechnol7020044 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Resolving controversies surrounding carbon sinks from carbonate weathering
Bai, X., Zhang, S., Smith, P., Li, C., Xiong, L., Du, C., Xue, Y., Li, Z., Long, M., Li, M., et al. (2024) · Science China Earth Sciences · doi:10.1007/s11430-024-1391-0 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Many studies have shown that CCSs can further reduce the intensity of the greenhouse effect, thereby depleting atmospheric and soil CO 2 (Zeng et al., 2017; Romero-Mujalli et al., 2018b; Strefler et al., 2018).”
Regional carbon drawdown with enhanced weathering of non-hazardous industrial wastes
Jia, X., Zhang, Z., Wang, F., Li, Z., Wang, Y., Aviso, K. B., Foo, D. C. Y., Nair, P. N. S. B., Tan, R. R., & Wang, F. (2021) · Resources Conservation and Recycling · doi:10.1016/j.resconrec.2021.105910 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Kazimierczuk, K., Barrows, S. E., Olarte, M. V., & Qafoku, N. P. (2023) · ACS Engineering Au · doi:10.1021/acsengineeringau.3c00031 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Assessment of technologies and economics for carbon dioxide removal from a portfolio perspective
Mühlbauer, A., Keiner, D., Gerhards, C., Caldera, U., Sterner, M., & Breyer, C. (2025) · International journal of greenhouse gas control · doi:10.1016/j.ijggc.2024.104297 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Technologies, trends, and trajectories across 100% renewable energy system analyses
Khalili, S., Oyewo, A. S., Lopez, G., Kaypnazarov, K., & Breyer, C. (2025) · Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.rser.2025.116308 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Multistep sequestration and storage of CO2 to form valuable products using forsterite
Raza, W., Raza, N., Agbe, H., Kumar, R., Kim, K., & Yang, J. (2018) · Energy · doi:10.1016/j.energy.2018.05.077 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Direct mineralization of atmospheric CO 2 using natural rocks in Japan
Myers, C., & Nakagaki, T. (2020) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/abc217 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Published by IOP Publishing Ltd potential of rock-based NETs is often reported (Strefler et al 2018), but the lack of country-level detail provides little guidance to the governments and companies who could implement them.”
BackgroundHonegger, M., Derwent, H., Harrison, N., Michaelowa, A., & Schäfer, S. (2018) · Zurich Open Repository and Archive (University of Zurich) · doi:10.5167/uzh-159656 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Adun, H. H., Ampah, J. D., Bamisile, O., Ozsahin, D. U., & Staffell, I. (2024) · Sustainable Production and Consumption · doi:10.1016/j.spc.2024.04.003 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Vakilifard, N., Kantzas, E. P., Edwards, N. R., Holden, P. B., & Beerling, D. J. (2021) · Environmental Research Letters · doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac1818 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
- Authors
- Strefler, J., Amann, T., Bauer, N., Kriegler, E., & Hartmann, J.
- Affiliations
- Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (DE)
- Universität Hamburg (DE)
- Corresponding author
- Strefler, Jessica
- Amann, Thorben
- Venue
- Environmental Research Letters
- Publisher
- IOP Publishing
- Published
- 2018-03-01
- Volume
- 13
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 034010
- ISSN
- 1748-9326 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2786586833
- Semantic Scholar
- 8ec3fc510d4553891bf8b6995cb1a7fbf850862e
- Cited by
- 372
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 54 · 2025: 60 · 2024: 73 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 50 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 8
- FWCI
- 10.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Environmental Research Letters (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- RENATE (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Publication Database PIK (Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK)) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- RENATE (cc-by)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (EXC177, SPP 1689 (CEMICS))
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › CO2 Sequestration and Geologic Interactions
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Mechanical Engineering › Carbon Dioxide Capture Technologies
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate Change and Geoengineering
- Keywords
- enhanced weathering, carbon dioxide removal, chemical weathering, dunite, basalt, olivine, forsterite, weathering rates, grain size, techno-economic analysis, energy requirements, cropland, ocean acidification, Paris Agreement
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
