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Cited by 445CO2 Sequestration and Geologic InteractionsMarine and coastal ecosystemsClimate Change and Geoengineering

CO2 Removal With Enhanced Weathering and Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement: Potential Risks and Co-benefits for Marine Pelagic Ecosystems

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Bach, Lennart T., Gill, Sophie J., Rickaby, Rosalind E. M., Gore, Sarah, Renforth, Phil·2019·Frontiers in Climate
DOI 10.3389/fclim.2019.00007
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Abstract

Humankind will need to remove hundreds of gigatons of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere by the end of the 21st century to keep global warming below 2° C within the constraints of the global carbon budget. However, so far it is unclear if and how this could be achieved. A widely recognized idea is to accelerate weathering reactions of minerals that consume CO2 when they dissolve. Acceleration could be realized by pulverizing and distributing gigatons of these minerals onto land (termed “enhanced weathering (EW)”) or sea (termed “ocean alkalinity enhancement (OAE)”) thereby largely increasing their reactive surfaces. However, the desired consumption of atmospheric CO2 during dissolution would inevitably be accompanied by a release of mineral dissolution products (alkalinity, Si, Ca, Mg, Fe, Ni and maybe others). Here, we approximate their maximum additions to assess potential consequences for pelagic communities (mainly primary producers) and the biogeochemical fluxes they control. Based on this assessment, we tentatively qualify the potential to induce positive and/or negative side effects to be high for Fe, Ni, Si, intermediate for alkalinity, and low for Ca and Mg. However, perturbation potentials are always higher at perturbation hotspots and would be different for EW than for OAE. Furthermore, ecological/biogeochemical consequences of EW/OAE largely depend on the minerals used. We hypothesise that mainly calcifiers would profit in a scheme where CaCO3 derivatives would be used due to beneficial changes in carbonate chemistry. Figuratively, this may turn the blue ocean into a white(r) ocean. When using silicates, the release of additional Si, Fe and Ni could benefit silicifiers and N2-fixers (cyanobacteria) and increase ocean productivity ultimately turning the blue ocean into a green(er) ocean. These considerations call for dedicated research to assess risks and co-benefits of mineral dissolution products on marine and other environments. Indeed, both EW and OAE could become important tools to realize CO2 removal at the planetary scale but associated risks and/or co-benefits should be revealed before deciding on their implementation.

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  • The use of silicate feedstocks containing micro- and macro-nutrients, such as olivine, may stimulate primary productivity more than electrochemically-produced alkalinity.

    “For example, the use of silicate feedstocks containing micro- and macro-nutrients, such as olivine, may stimulate primary productivity more than electrochemically-produced alkalinity. 83”

    From A framework for understanding efficiency losses of Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement (2026) · cites this paper as [83]

    In “Synthesizing the Influence of Different Perturbation Schemes in a Common Framework” (page unavailable), the paper says olivine adds dissolved silicate and trace metals and would likely increase primary production, particularly through iron fertilization in iron-limited open-ocean regions. It does not compare that effect with electrochemically produced alkalinity, so the specific comparator is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • OAE operates by increasing seawater total alkalinity (TA), thereby increasing the ocean's capacity to absorb atmospheric CO2 and promoting the conversion of dissolved CO2 into bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate (CO3 2-) ions.

    “OAE operates by increasing seawater total alkalinity (TA), thereby increasing the ocean's capacity to absorb atmospheric CO 2 and promoting the conversion of dissolved CO 2 into bicarbonate (HCO 3 -) and carbonate (CO 3 2) ions (Bach et al., 2019; Renforth and Henderson, 2017).”

    From Biogeochemical responses to ocean alkalinity enhancement in the North China Sea (2026) · cites this paper as Bach et al., 2019

  • OAE may alter marine plankton communities, which play fundamental roles in marine food webs and biogeochemical cycling.

    “Despite its potential climate benefits, OAE may alter marine plankton communities, which play fundamental roles in marine food webs and biogeochemical cycling (Bach et al., 2019).”

    From Biogeochemical responses to ocean alkalinity enhancement in the North China Sea (2026) · cites this paper as Bach et al., 2019

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Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Bach, L. T., Gill, S. J., Rickaby, R. E. M., Gore, S., & Renforth, P.
Affiliations
  • University of Tasmania (AU)
  • University of Oxford (GB)
  • Cardiff University (GB)
  • Heriot-Watt University (GB)
Corresponding author
Bach, Lennart T.
ORCID
Venue
Frontiers in Climate
Publisher
Frontiers Media SA
Published
2019-10-11
Volume
1
ISSN
2624-9553 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3389/fclim.2019.00007
OpenAlex
W2980239620
Cited by
445
References
19
Citations by year
2026: 68 · 2025: 64 · 2024: 100 · 2023: 135 · 2022: 52 · 2021: 23 · 2020: 2 · 2018: 1
FWCI
8.16
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Frontiers in Climate (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • UTAS Research Repository (acceptedVersion)
  • Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
  • Royal Society
  • Royal Society of Chemistry
  • GEOMAR Helmholtz-Zentrum für Ozeanforschung Kiel
  • Natural Environment Research Council (NE/P01982X/1, NE/P019730/1, NE/P019730/2, 1940087)
  • Australian Research Council (FL160100131)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › CO2 Sequestration and Geologic Interactions
  • Physical Sciences › Earth and Planetary Sciences › Oceanography › Marine and coastal ecosystems
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Global and Planetary Change › Climate Change and Geoengineering
Keywords
enhanced weathering, ocean alkalinity enhancement, carbon dioxide removal, pelagic ecosystem, iron fertilization, nickel, silicon, calcium, magnesium, carbonate chemistry, calcifiers, cyanobacteria, ocean productivity, biogeochemical fluxes, geoengineering risks, ocean fertilization

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