Shifting from implicit to explicit knowledge: Different roles of early- and late-night sleep
Open accessAbstract
Sleep has been shown to promote the generation of explicit knowledge as indicated by the gain of insight into previously unrecognized task regularities. Here, we explored whether this generation of explicit knowledge depends on pre-sleep implicit knowledge, and specified the differential roles of slow-wave sleep (SWS) vs. rapid eye movement (REM) sleep in this process. Implicit and explicit knowledge (insight) related to a hidden regularity were assessed in an associative motor-learning task (number reduction task, NRT), which was performed in two sessions (initial practice and retest) separated by 3 h of either early-night sleep, rich in SWS, or of late-night sleep, rich in REM sleep. About half of the participants developed signs of implicit rule knowledge (i.e., speeded reaction times for responses determined by the hidden regularity) at initial practice preceding early or late sleep. Of these, half developed explicit knowledge across early-night sleep, significantly more than across late-night sleep. In contrast, late-night subjects preferentially remained on the level of implicit rule knowledge after sleep. Participants who did not develop implicit knowledge before sleep had comparable rates of transition to implicit or explicit knowledge across early and late sleep. If subjects gained explicit knowledge across sleep, this was associated with lower amounts of REM sleep, specifically in the late-night group. SWS predominant during the early night may restructure implicit memory representations in a way that allows creating an explicit representation afterward, whereas REM sleep in the late night appears to stabilize them in their implicit form.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Once subjects have acquired implicit knowledge about the rule during the pre-sleep practice phase, SWS rather than REM sleep is critical for the occurrence of explicit insight into the rule.
“Further studies comparing retention periods rich in SWS or REM sleep revealed that once subjects have acquired implicit knowledge about the rule during the pre-sleep practice phase, SWS rather than REM sleep is critical for the occurrence of explicit insight into the rule (Yordanova et al. 2008).”
From System consolidation of memory during sleep (2012) · cites this paper as Yordanova et al. 2008
Studies in adults indicate that SWS is critically involved in the extraction of explicit knowledge.
“in line with studies in adults indicating that SWS is critically involved in the extraction of explicit knowledge (1347).”
From About Sleep's Role in Memory (2013) · cites this paper as [1347]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Rechtschaffen, A. (1968) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 11,772 · see citing works
Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans.
Squire, L. R. (1992) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.99.2.195 · Cited by 5,376 · see citing works
McClelland, J. L., McNaughton, B. L., & O'Reilly, R. C. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.3.419 · Cited by 5,256 · see citing works
Memory - A century of consolidation
McGaugh, J. L. (2000) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.287.5451.248 · Cited by 4,250 · see citing works
Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep
Wilson, M. A., & McNaughton, B. L. (1994) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.8036517 · Cited by 3,118 · see citing works
Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation
Goel, N., Rao, H., Durmer, J., & Dinges, D. (2009) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/s-0029-1237117 · Cited by 2,154 · see citing works
Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge
Reber, A. S. (2003) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/2834.003.0047 · Cited by 2,013 · see citing works
Boosting slow oscillations during sleep potentiates memory
Marshall, L., Helgadóttir, H., Mölle, M., & Born, J. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05278 · Cited by 1,792 · see citing works
Self-citationImplicit learning and tacit knowledge
Reber, A. S. (1989) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.118.3.219 · Cited by 1,581 · see citing works
Neurocognitive Consequences of Sleep Deprivation
Durmer, J. S., & Dinges, D. F. (2005) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/s-2005-867080 · Cited by 1,473 · see citing works
The hippocampus and memory: insights from spatial processing
Bird, C. M., & Burgess, N. (2008) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2335 · Cited by 1,313 · see citing works
Odor cues during slow-wave sleep prompt declarative memory consolidation
Rasch, B., Büchel, C., Gais, S., & Born, J. (2007) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1138581 · Cited by 1,181 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of sleep in learning and memory
Maquet, P. (2001) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1062856 · Cited by 1,177 · see citing works
Walker, M. P., & Stickgold, R. (2006) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070307 · Cited by 1,075 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Sleep has been identified as a critical brain state involved in both explicit and implicit memory consolidation (for overviews, see Maquet 2001; Smith 2001; Paller and Voss 2004; Born et al. 2006; Walker and Stickgold 2006), where consolidation refers to a post-learning process that stabilizes and strengthens the new…”
BackgroundEffects of early and late nocturnal sleep on declarative and procedural memory
Plihal, W., & Born, J. (1997) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.1997.9.4.534 · Cited by 1,026 · see citing works
Wagner, U., Gais, S., Haider, H., Verleger, R., & Born, J. (2004) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature02223 · Cited by 1,012 · see citing works
Self-citationAre spatial memories strengthened in the human hippocampus during slow wave sleep?
Peigneux, P., Laureys, S., Fuchs, S., Collette, F., Perrin, F., Reggers, J., Phillips, C., Degueldre, C., Del Fiore, G., Aerts, J., et al. (2004) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2004.10.007 · Cited by 766 · see citing works
A theory of implicit and explicit knowledge
Dienes, Z., & Perner, J. (1999) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x99002186 · Cited by 672 · see citing works
Seger, C. A. (1994) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.163 · Cited by 661 · see citing works
Wagner, U., Gais, S., & Born, J. (2001) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.36801 · Cited by 605 · cited 4× · see citing works
“This procedure of night-half comparison has been efficiently applied in several previous studies, which revealed differential effects of SWS-rich and REM sleeprich periods (e.g., Fowler et al. 1973; Plihal and Born 1997, 1999; Wagner et al. 2001, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationMemory consolidation during sleep: a neurophysiological perspective
Buzsáki, G. (1998) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2869.7.s1.3.x · Cited by 578 · see citing works
Born, J., Rasch, B., & Gais, S. (2006) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858406292647 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Self-citationDeclarative memory consolidation: mechanisms acting during human sleep
Gais, S., & Born, J. (2004) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.80504 · Cited by 536 · see citing works
Self-citationConsolidation during sleep of perceptual learning of spoken language
Fenn, K. M., Nusbaum, H. C., & Margoliash, D. (2003) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature01951 · Cited by 463 · see citing works
Awareness Modifies the Skill-Learning Benefits of Sleep
Robertson, E. M., Pascual-Leone, A., & Press, D. Z. (2004) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2004.01.027 · Cited by 450 · see citing works
Human relational memory requires time and sleep
Ellenbogen, J. M., Hu, P. T., Payne, J. D., Titone, D., & Walker, M. P. (2007) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0700094104 · Cited by 415 · see citing works
Naps promote abstraction in language-learning infants
Gómez, R. L., Bootzin, R. R., & Nadel, L. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01764.x · Cited by 386 · see citing works
Effects of early and late nocturnal sleep on priming and spatial memory
Plihal, W., & Born, J. (1999) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/1469-8986.3650571 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
Self-citationMaguire, E. A., & Mummery, C. J. (1999) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/(sici)1098-1063(1999)9:1 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Sleep states and memory processes in humans: procedural versus declarative memory systems
Smith, C. (2001) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1053/smrv.2001.0164 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Sleep-dependent learning and motor-skill complexity
Kuriyama, K., Stickgold, R., & Walker, M. P. (2004) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.76304 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Effects of Attention on Neuroelectric Correlates of Auditory Stream Segregation
Snyder, J. S., Alain, C., & Picton, T. W. (2006) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892906775250021 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Sleep Loss and “Divergent” Thinking Ability
Horne, J. A. (1988) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/11.6.528 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Peigneux, P., Laureys, S., Fuchs, S., Destrebecqz, A., Collette, F., Delbeuck, X., Phillips, C. L. M., Aerts, J. J., Fiore, G. D., Degueldre, C., et al. (2003) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/s1053-8119(03)00278-7 · Cited by 309 · see citing works
Human hippocampus associates information in memory
Henke, K., Weber, B., Kneifel, S., Wieser, H. G., & Buck, A. (1999) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.96.10.5884 · Cited by 293 · see citing works
100 Years of Consolidation— Remembering Müller and PilzeckerPreprint
Lechner, H., Squire, L. R., & Byrne, J. H. (1999) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.6.2.77 · Cited by 272 · see citing works
Parallel brain systems for learning with and without awareness.Preprint
Reber, P. J., & Squire, L. R. (1994) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.1.4.217 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Attention and Implicit Learning
(2003) · Advances in consciousness research · doi:10.1075/aicr.48 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Implicit Learning–Explicit Knowing: A Role for Sleep in Memory System Interaction
Fischer, S., Drosopoulos, S., Tsen, J., & Born, J. (2006) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.3.311 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Self-citationOff-Line Processing: Reciprocal Interactions between Declarative and Procedural Memories
Brown, R. M., & Robertson, E. M. (2007) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2799-07.2007 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Fowler, M. J., Sullivan, M. J., & Ekstrand, B. R. (1973) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.179.4070.302 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Hauptmann, B., Reinhart, E., Brandt, S. A., & Karni, A. (2005) · Cognitive Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.012 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Linking Actions and Their Perceivable Consequences in the Human Brain
Elsner, B., Hommel, B., Mentschel, C., Drzezga, A. E., Prinz, W., Conrad, B., & Siebner, H. R. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1162 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Memory reactivation and consolidation during sleepPreprint
Paller, K. A., & Voss, J. L. (2004) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.75704 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Wagner, U., Kashyap, N., Diekelmann, S., & Jan Born, A. (2007) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2007.01.004 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Self-citationRolls, E. T., & Treves, A. (1997) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198524328.003.0006 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Memory consolidation during sleep: Interactive effects of sleep stages and HPA regulation: Review
Wagner, U., & Born, J. (2008) · Stress · doi:10.1080/10253890701408822 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Role of Medial Temporal Lobe Structures in Implicit Learning
Rose, M., Haider, H., Weiller, C., & Büchel, C. (2002) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/s0896-6273(02)01105-4 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Changes in Sleep Architecture following Motor Learning Depend on Initial Skill Level
Peters, K. R., Smith, V., & Smith, C. T. (2007) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.5.817 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Towards an explicit account of implicit learning
Forkstam, C., & Petersson, K. M. (2005) · Current Opinion in Neurology · doi:10.1097/01.wco.0000171951.82995.c4 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Awareness Modifies the Skill-Learning Benefits of Sleep
Robertson, E. M. (2004) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(04)00039-9 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
How to investigate insight: A proposal
Haider, H., & Rose, M. (2007) · Methods · doi:10.1016/j.ymeth.2006.12.004 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
The route from implicit learning to verbal expression of what has been learned
Frensch, P. A., Haider, H., Rünger, D., et al. (2003) · Advances in consciousness research · doi:10.1075/aicr.48.17fre · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Signs of REM sleep dependent enhancement of implicit face memory: a repetition priming study
Wagner, U., Hallschmid, M., Verleger, R., & Born, J. (2003) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0511(02)00125-4 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Self-citationPrecursors of Insight in Event-related Brain Potentials
Lang, S., Kanngieser, N., Jaśkowskí, P., Haider, H., Rose, M., & Verleger, R. (2006) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.12.2152 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Unconscious Detection of Implicit Expectancies
Rose, M., Haider, H., & Büchel, C. (2005) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/0898929054021193 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Memory for order of operations in the acquisition and transfer of sequential cognitive skills.
Woltz, D. J., Bell, B., Kyllonen, P. C., et al. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.22.2.438 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
The Relevance of the Nature of Learned Associations for the Differentiation of Human Memory SystemsPreprint
Rose, M., Haider, H., Weiller, C., & Büchel, C. (2004) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.67204 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Rasch, B., & Born, J. (2013) · Physiological Reviews · doi:10.1152/physrev.00032.2012 · Cited by 2,783 · see citing works
Self-citationSystem consolidation of memory during sleep
Born, J., & Wilhelm, I. (2012) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-011-0335-6 · Cited by 667 · see citing works
Self-citationThe whats and whens of sleep-dependent memory consolidation
Diekelmann, S., Wilhelm, I., & Born, J. (2009) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2008.08.002 · Cited by 566 · see citing works
The sleeping child outplays the adult's capacity to convert implicit into explicit knowledge
Wilhelm, I., Rose, M., Imhof, K. I., Rasch, B., Büchel, C., & Born, J. (2013) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3343 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Self-citationGeneralization of word meanings during infant sleep
Friedrich, M., Wilhelm, I., Born, J., & Friederici, A. D. (2015) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms7004 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Slow-wave sleep takes the leading role in memory reorganization
Diekelmann, S., & Born, J. (2010) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn2762-c2 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Self-citationSleep-dependent memory consolidation – What can be learnt from children?
Wilhelm, I., Prehn-Kristensen, A., & Born, J. (2012) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.03.002 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Self-citationDurrant, S. J., Cairney, S. A., & Lewis, P. A. (2013) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhs244 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Cued memory reactivation during slow-wave sleep promotes explicit knowledge of a motor sequence
Cousins, J. N., El-Deredy, W., Parkes, L. M., Hennies, N., & Lewis, P. A. (2014) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1011-14.2014 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Dream to Predict? REM Dreaming as Prospective Coding
Llewellyn, S. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01961 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Edwards, C. L., Ruby, P. M., Malinowski, J. E., Bennett, P. D., & Blagrove, M. T. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00979 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Drosopoulos, S., Harrer, D., & Born, J. (2011) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2010.11.005 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Self-citationLlewellyn, S. (2016) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2016.09.018 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Labile sleep promotes awareness of abstract knowledge in a serial reaction time task.
Kirov, R., Kolev, V., Verleger, R., & Yordanova, J. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01354 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationCipolli, C., Guazzelli, M., Bellucci, C., Mazzetti, M., Palagini, L., Rosenlicht, N., & Feinberg, I. (2015) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.12251 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
REM sleep and dreaming functions beyond reductionism
Kirov, R. (2013) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x13001362 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Carlsson, I., Davidson, P., & Ors, M. (2019) · Creativity Research Journal · doi:10.1080/10400419.2019.1606619 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
- Authors
- Yordanova, J., Kolev, V., Verleger, Bataghva, Z., Born, J., & Wagner, U.
- Affiliations
- Bulgarian Academy of Sciences (BG)
- University of Lübeck (DE)
- University of Geneva (CH)
- Venue
- Learning & Memory
- Publisher
- Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
- Published
- 2008-07
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 508-515
- ISSN
- 1072-0502 (ISSN-L)
- 1549-5485
- PMC
- PMC2505318
- OpenAlex
- W2153926708
- Cited by
- 86
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 2 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 4 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 8 · 2012: 7
- Type
- posted content
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Learning & Memory (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (SFB654)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Keywords
- sleep-dependent memory consolidation, explicit knowledge, tacit knowledge, insight, slow-wave sleep, REM sleep
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Analysis of Variance, Female, Humans, Learning, Male, Neuropsychological Tests, Reaction Time, Sleep, Sleep Stages, Wakefulness, Polysomnography, Knowledge
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
