The Impact of a Dialogic Intervention on a Chinese Rural Teacher and Students' Stances Towards Texts

May combine two claims.

Despite the IRE/IRF format being efficient for students to learn factual knowledge and basic skills, it restricts students' opportunities to engage in elaborating, adding complexity, and going beyond the given.

“Despite the IRE/IRF format of discussion being efficient for students to learn factual knowledge and basic skills (Cheng et al. 2015), it restricts students' opportunities to get involved in processes of 'elaborating, adding complexity, and going beyond the given' (Magirius, Steinmetz, and Scherf 2023, 2).”

• cites Cheng et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Magirius, Steinmetz, and Scherf 2023 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Dialogic approaches benefitted teachers' beliefs and their practices in reading instructions.

“dialogic approaches benefitted teachers' beliefs and their practices in reading instructions (e.g., Cheng et al. 2015;Sun, Zhang, and Li 2020;Wei, Murphy, and Wu 2020).”

• cites Cheng et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sun, Zhang, and Li 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Abstract reports that two fourth-grade teachers made progress in facilitating collaborative reasoning discussions, and the Results describe adaptive instructional practices. The Results also say teachers’ existing views of reading instruction influenced their adaptation; they do not establish that the dialogic approach benefited both teachers’ beliefs. One teacher’s narrow view of reading instruction slowed her progress. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Wei, Murphy, and Wu 2020 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Peer-led, open-format discussion approaches were successful in raising Chinese students' reading comprehension skills.

“peer-led, open-format discussion approaches were successful in raising Chinese students' reading comprehension skills”

• cites Cheng et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Sun, Zhang, and Li 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (page unavailable) describe collaborative reasoning as a way to promote high-level comprehension and report that teachers made progress facilitating discussions. But this study examined teachers’ learning; our copy does not establish that the discussions raised students’ reading-comprehension skills. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Wei, Murphy, and Wu 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusion (page unavailable) says peer discussions helped Chinese students co-construct understanding of English texts at a higher level, and that cultivating student discussion leaders was a successful practice. It does not establish that an open-format approach raised students’ reading-comprehension skills; the reported success concerns implementing discussions and supporting understanding during them. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

A good text for students' productive discussion is one for which students have sufficient background knowledge of the topic and issues addressed, which is essential for students' text comprehension.

“A good text for students' productive discussion is one for which students have sufficient background knowledge of the topic and issues addressed, which is essential for students' text comprehension (Smith et al. 2021).”

• cites Smith et al. 2021 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction and ‘The Role of the Text’ (pages unavailable) describe background knowledge as important to reading comprehension. ‘Recommendations for Practice and Future Research’ links it to text selection, but does not address productive discussion; it recommends texts that are challenging without making comprehension impossible, rather than simply requiring sufficient prior knowledge. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Chinese teachers can have a narrow view of reading instruction and believe texts should be interpreted according to the text's advanced, authoritative, institutionally approved ideas, thus limiting possibilities for dialogue.

“Chinese teachers can have a narrow view of reading instruction and believe texts should be interpreted according to the text's advanced, authoritative, institutionally approved ideas, thus limiting the possibilities for dialogue (Sun, Zhang, and Li 2020).”

• cites Sun, Zhang, and Li 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (page unavailable) describe one teacher’s narrow view of reading instruction, focused on basic literacy skills. The introductory discussion (labeled Abstract in our copy; page unavailable) says teachers often evaluate responses against predetermined answers, leaving few opportunities for extended discussion. Neither passage says teachers believe texts must be interpreted according to advanced, institutionally approved ideas. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The PD programme is essential for teachers to develop knowledge and skills that differ significantly from those in more traditional classrooms, and helps teachers develop a dialogic reading stance.

“The PD programme is essential for teachers to develop knowledge and skills that differ significantly from those in more traditional classrooms (Gore et al. 2017), and helps teachers develop a dialogic reading stance (Barak and Lefstein 2022).”

• cites Gore et al. 2017 sourcePartly supported

  Only the first clause is attributed to Gore et al.; the dialogic-reading claim cites Barak and Lefstein. Gore et al. report improved teaching quality after Quality Teaching Rounds (§3.1.1) and describe a framework that structures teachers’ knowledge of teaching (§3.4.1). They do not establish that the PD programme is essential or that the knowledge and skills teachers develop differ significantly from those used in traditional classrooms. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Barak and Lefstein 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Autonomy-supportive practices (e.g., group work) are powerful ways to foster the growth of elementary children's mindset.

“This is supported by Yu, Kreijkes, and Salmela-Aro (2022) who argued that autonomy-supportive practices (e.g., group work) are powerful ways to foster the growth of elementary children's mindset.”

• cites Yu, Kreijkes, and Salmela-Aro (2022) sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports that elementary students had a stronger growth mindset when teachers used guided inquiry more frequently, but group work was not associated with growth mindset in the full model. The Implications for practice caution that the study is correlational and that it is too early to make practice recommendations, so calling these practices powerful ways to foster mindset growth overstates the evidence. Page numbers are not provided in our copy's passages. (LLM, conf=0.91)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student readers might risk not applying a critical lens to their reading or co-creating meaning, depending on their previous experience or individual perspectives.

“student readers might risk not applying a critical lens to their reading or co-creating meaning, depending on their previous experience or individual perspectives (Nguyen and Henderson 2020).”

• cites Nguyen and Henderson 2020 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

One student from Mrs. Zhang's class saw the role of classroom talk to learn strategies to answer the questions on reading tests.

“One student from Mrs. Zhang's class saw the role of classroom talk to learn strategies to answer the questions on reading tests:”

May combine two claims.

The group discussion at Time 9 showed that students learned what was expected of them and how to engage in productive discussions.

“The group discussion at Time 9 showed that students learned what was expected of them and how to engage in productive discussions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

By asking students test questions, teachers claimed that they provided insights into students' understanding and was the vehicle for teacher feedback.

“By asking students test questions, teachers claimed that they provided insights into students' understanding and was the vehicle for teacher feedback:”

May combine two claims.

In this excerpt, students interpreted the text by providing intertextual responses and connected the text content and world knowledge (citing saying in Utterances 3, 4, 11, 12).

“In this excerpt, students interpreted the text by providing intertextual responses and connected the text content and world knowledge (citing saying in Utterances 3, 4, 11, 12).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This excerpt shows how the students collaboratively constructed their understanding of this narrative text together.

“This excerpt shows how the students collaboratively constructed their understanding of this narrative text together.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A challenge to a position or argument is essential for exploratory talk.

May combine two claims.

Although the teacher's high-level thinking questions called for students' analysis of text information, students still provided unelaborated responses.

“Although these questions call for students' analysis of text information, students still provided unelaborated responses.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Prior to the intervention, students had similar views about the purpose of the teachers' questions, as the teacher-student talk helped them change their 'wrong' answers.

“Prior to the intervention, students had similar views about the purpose of the teachers' questions, as the teacher-student talk helped them change their 'wrong' answers.”

May combine two claims.

Although students provided more unelaborated explanations at the beginning of the intervention (70% at Time 4), their elaborated explanations outnumbered the 'not elaborated explanations' from Time 5 to Time 11.

“Although students provided more unelaborated explanations at the beginning of the intervention (70% at Time 4), their elaborated explanations outnumbered the 'not elaborated explanations' from Time 5 to Time 11.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The excerpt illustrates the students' co-construction of arguments.

“The excerpt illustrates the students' co-construction of arguments.”

May combine two claims.

Students who participated in the interview showed more critical-analytical stance towards texts; they believed the discussion materials enabled them to have multiple text interpretations.

“However, students who participated in the interview showed more critical-analytical stance towards texts; they believed the discussion materials enabled them to have multiple text interpretations.”

May combine two claims.

Figure 4 reveals that at each time point, the proportion of 'Not elaborated explanations' constitutes 98% of all student utterances, whereas 'Elaborated explanations' only occupied 2% of all student utterances.

“This figure reveals that at each time point, the proportion of 'Not elaborated explanations' constitutes 98% of all student utterances, whereas 'Elaborated explanations' only occupied 2% of all student utterances.”

May combine two claims.

Students showed their ability to evaluate others' viewpoints and weigh evidence, including textual evidence, personal experience and intertextual evidence, through reasoned argumentative practice, thus building on others' contributions.

“Students showed their ability to evaluate others' viewpoints and weigh evidence, including textual evidence, personal experience and intertextual evidence, through reasoned argumentative practice, thus building on others' contributions.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A challenge to a position or argument is essential for exploratory talk.

May combine two claims.

The teacher still had low expectations of her rural students' capability to engage in intellectually challenging discussions and believed that wholeclass instruction, not small-group discussions, ensured her rural students' understanding through the teacher's detailed instructions.

“The teacher still had low expectations of her rural students' capability to engage in intellectually challenging discussions and believed that wholeclass instruction, not small-group discussions, ensured her rural students' understanding through the teacher's detailed instructions.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The teacher's self-reported beliefs accurately reflect her actual beliefs and motivations.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

As a result, she thought students could only retrieve explicit information from these texts through her detailed explanations.

“As a result, she thought students could only retrieve explicit information from these texts through her detailed explanations.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The teacher's self-reported beliefs accurately reflect her actual beliefs and motivations.

May combine two claims.

The intervention provided opportunities for students to think and talk about texts more analytically to focus on the underlying arguments and beliefs expressed in the text, and they had multiple interpretations and critiques of texts, rather than emphasising every story detail and the author's exact meaning of the text.

“The intervention provided opportunities for students to think and talk about texts more analytically to focus on the underlying arguments and beliefs expressed in the text, and they had multiple interpretations and critiques of texts, rather than emphasising every story detail and the author's exact meaning of the text (Wade, Thompson, and Watkins 1994).”

• cites Wade, Thompson, and Watkins 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The teacher changed her talk patterns by asking more openended questions during the intervention period; however, there was an incongruence between her mindset and practices.

“The teacher changed her talk patterns by asking more openended questions during the intervention period; however, there was an incongruence between her mindset and practices.”

May combine two claims.

Mrs. Liu sustained the monologic stance towards texts because she worried about the text complexity for students' understanding, the lack of dialogic texts and finishing prescribed teaching tasks within fixed time constraints.

“However, Mrs. Liu sustained the monologic stance towards texts because she worried about the text complexity for students' understanding, 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Time 12 Time 13 Time 14 Elaborated ExplanaƟons Not Elaborated ExplanaƟons the lack of dialogic texts and finishing prescribed teaching tasks within fixed time constraints.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The teacher's self-reported beliefs accurately reflect her actual beliefs and motivations.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

To ensure the completion of the teaching tasks, Mrs. Liu believed it was less effective to use student smallgroup discussions.

“To ensure the completion of the teaching tasks, Mrs. Liu believed it was less effective to use student smallgroup discussions.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The teacher's self-reported beliefs accurately reflect her actual beliefs and motivations.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Although the curriculum texts were not conducive to students' text-based discussions, Mrs. Liu reported that teachers were only allowed to use mandated texts that might not have the potential to facilitate students' talk.

“Although the curriculum texts were not conducive to students' text-based discussions, Mrs. Liu reported that teachers were only allowed to use mandated texts that might not have the potential to facilitate students' talk.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The teacher's self-reported beliefs accurately reflect her actual beliefs and motivations.

May combine two claims.

After the intervention ended, the teacher returned to her preintervention teaching method; her test questions still dominated classroom talk (78%), whereas she asked few authentic questions (4%) or uptake questions (6%).

“After the intervention ended, the teacher returned to her preintervention teaching method; her test questions till dominated classroom talk (78%), whereas she asked few authentic questions (4%) or uptake questions (6%) (see Figure 3).”

May combine two claims.

When students adopted critical-analytical thinking about texts during text-based discussions, they evaluated texts by using evidence through argumentation and came to a reasoned understanding.

“When students adopted critical-analytical thinking about texts during text-based discussions, they evaluated texts by using evidence through argumentation and came to a reasoned understanding.”

May combine two claims.

Despite students shifting to a more dialogic stance towards texts after the intervention ended, they still reverted to their preintervention discourse patterns.

“However, despite students shifting to a more dialogic stance towards texts after the intervention ended, they still reverted to their preintervention discourse patterns.”

May combine two claims.

Despite the teacher giving students the control of turn-taking and asking more open-ended questions during the dialogic intervention, the PD failed to fundamentally change the teacher's monologic stance towards texts as she reverted to the IRE/IRF patterns of teacher-led interaction after the intervention ended.

“Despite the teacher giving students the control of turn-taking and asking more open-ended questions during the dialogic intervention, the PD failed to fundamentally change the teacher's monologic stance towards texts as she reverted to the IRE/IRF patterns of teacher-led interaction after the intervention ended.”

May combine two claims.

Students freely expressed conflicting perspectives and engaged critically but constructively with each other's ideas, with justification for counterarguments and rebuttals supporting their claims or positions, as shown in Utterances 5, 9, 10, 12, 13.

“Students freely expressed conflicting perspectives and engaged critically but constructively with each other's ideas, with justification for counterarguments and rebuttals supporting their claims or positions, as shown in Utterances 5, 9, 10, 12, 13.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: A challenge to a position or argument is essential for exploratory talk.

May combine two claims.

She still took a monologic stance towards texts by using the IRE talk pattern; thus, students reverted to their preintervention talk patterns (e.g., unelaborated responses).

“She still took a monologic stance towards texts by using the IRE talk pattern; thus, students reverted to their preintervention talk patterns (e.g., unelaborated responses).”

May combine two claims.

Students tended to have an instrumental reading stance because most students saw classroom talk, especially teacher feedback, as a way to change their 'wrong' answers.

“Students tended to have an instrumental reading stance because most students saw classroom talk, especially teacher feedback, as a way to change their 'wrong' answers.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Facilitating classroom dialogue during which students engage in argumentation poses systematic challenges for teachers, including learning tasks, activities, time, space, relationships, pupil grouping, planning, assessment, lesson structure and the curriculum.

“However, facilitating classroom dialogue during which students engage in argumentation poses systematic challenges for teachers, including 'learning tasks, activities, time, space, relationships, pupil grouping, planning, assessment, lesson structure and the curriculum' (Alexander 2015, 434).”

• cites Alexander 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Changes in teachers' beliefs about the potential benefits of dialogic pedagogy are required, suggesting a link between teachers' understandings of dialogue and their endorsement and implementation of reasoned argumentation for understanding.

“Furthermore, changes in teachers' beliefs about the potential benefits of dialogic pedagogy are required, suggesting a link between teachers' understandings of dialogue and their endorsement and implementation of reasoned argumentation for understanding (Sandoval, Greene, and Bråten 2016).”

• cites Sandoval, Greene, and Bråten 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

A text high in dialogic quality should contain traces of many voices engaging in dialogue with each other, which can lead students to have multiple interpretations, perspectives or explanations.

“First, a text that is high in dialogic quality should contain traces of many 'voices' engaging in dialogue with each other, which can lead students to have multiple interpretations, perspectives or explanations (Bakhtin 2010).”

• cites Bakhtin 2010Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Reznitskaya and Wilkinson (2017) identified three characteristics of texts conducive to students' productive discussions: dialogic, accessible and engaging.

“For example, Reznitskaya and Wilkinson (2017) identified three characteristics of texts conducive to students' productive discussions: They should be dialogic, accessible and engaging.”

• cites Reznitskaya and Wilkinson 2017Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In a monologic stance, teachers often ask inauthentic questions that function only to display how well a student's recall aligns with the disseminating message.

“In this monologic stance, teachers often ask inauthentic questions, which function only to succinctly display how well a student's recall aligns with the disseminating message, how well students can 'perform' knowing (Boyd and Markarian 2015).”

• cites Boyd and Markarian 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Students may not develop a deeper comprehension ability through IRE/IRF, which can be achieved through opportunities for multiple interpretations of text information.

“Students may not develop a deeper comprehension ability, which can be achieved through opportunities for multiple interpretations of text information (Johnson 2019).”

• cites Johnson 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Teachers' and students' reading stances can determine a text's dialogic potential.

“In other words, teachers' and students' reading stances can determine a text's dialogic potential.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Texts are not inherently univocal or dialogic; rather, these are qualities that readers attribute to texts.

“Texts are not inherently univocal or dialogic; rather, these are qualities that readers attribute to texts (Barak and Lefstein 2022).”

• cites Barak and Lefstein 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Dialogic teaching in language arts classrooms involves cultivating a dialogic reading stance among teachers and students that is open to multiple interpretations and critique of text information.

“Dialogic teaching in language arts classrooms involves cultivating a dialogic reading stance among teachers and students that is open to multiple interpretations and critique of text information (Chinn, Buckland, and Samarapungavan 2011;Soter et al. 2008).”

• cites Chinn, Buckland, and Samarapungavan 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Soter et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

The common strategies for Chinese teachers' transmissive practices are explicit directions and whole-classroom instructions, whereas students tend to passively receive knowledge.

“The common strategies for Chinese teachers' transmissive practices are explicit directions and whole-classroom instructions, whereas students tend to passively receive knowledge (Wang et al. 2022).”

• cites Wang et al. 2022 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Eliciting rich dialogue from students requires topics that are controversial and provocative with texts that tap into fundamental values, address issues of some complexity and include questions about human conditions worth discussing.

“Eliciting rich dialogue from students requires topics that are controversial and provocative with texts that tap into fundamental values, address issues of some complexity and include questions about human conditions that are worth discussing (e.g., friendship, honesty, compassion) (Davies and Meissel 2016;Reznitskaya and Wilkinson 2017).”

• cites Davies and Meissel 2016Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Reznitskaya and Wilkinson 2017Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

IRE or IRF are the typical structure in literature classes.

“Initiationresponse-evaluation (IRE) or initiation-response-follow-up (IRF) (Mehan 1979) are the typical structure in literature classes (Wang 2011).”

• cites Mehan 1979 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Wang 2011Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some researchers found professional development focusing on dialogic approaches had a limited effect on teachers' stances and beliefs.

“some researchers found professional development (PD) focusing on dialogic approaches had a limited effect on teachers' stances and beliefs (e.g., Hennessy and Davies 2020;Wilkinson et al. 2017).”

• cites Hennessy and Davies 2020Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites Wilkinson et al. 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Dialogue-based instruction has been widely viewed as effective for teaching and learning.

“Dialogue-based instruction has been widely viewed as effective for teaching and learning (Wilkinson, Murphy, and Binici 2015).”

• cites Wilkinson, Murphy, and Binici 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Discussion approaches that give prominence to an efferent stance enable students to seek knowledge and retrieve explicit text content.

“Although discussion approaches that give prominence to an efferent stance enable students to seek knowledge and retrieve explicit text content”

May combine two claims.

Expert-driven PD is typically designed to convey procedural skills and risks viewing teachers as technicians in implementing the designed practices.

“However, expert-driven PD is typically designed to convey procedural skills and risks viewing teachers as 'technicians' in implementing the designed practices (Butler et al. 2004).”

• cites Butler et al. 2004 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In both classrooms, 100% of parents consented, and 100% of students assented to participate in the research.

“In both classrooms, 100% of parents consented, and 100% of students assented to participate in the research.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Approaches with an efferent stance can lead to teachers controlling the turn-taking and limit opportunities for students to have multiple text interpretations.

“researchers have argued that approaches with an efferent stance can lead to teachers controlling the turn-taking (Wilkinson, Murphy, and Binici 2015) and limit opportunities for students to have multiple text interpretations (Soter et al. 2008).”

• cites Wilkinson, Murphy, and Binici 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Soter et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The critical-analytic stance encourages readers to engage their querying minds and search for arguments, assumptions, worldviews and beliefs that can be inferred from texts.

“The critical-analytic stance encourages readers to engage their querying minds and search for arguments, assumptions, worldviews and beliefs that can be inferred from texts (Wade, Thompson, and Watkins 1994).”

• cites Wade, Thompson, and Watkins 1994Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Successful implementation of inquiry dialogue does not rely on using prescribed texts.

“Although the successful implementation of inquiry dialogue does not rely on using prescribed texts (Reznitskaya and Wilkinson 2017)”

• cites Reznitskaya and Wilkinson 2017Not checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The critical-analytical stance encourages a discussion that prompts more subjective, critical responses to the text and promotes the development of students' reasoning and reading comprehension.

“Most importantly, the criticalanalytical stance encourages a discussion that prompts more subjective, critical responses to the text and promotes the development of students' reasoning and reading comprehension (Soter et al. 2008).”

• cites Soter et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For students to have successful dialogue, texts need to be engaging.

“Third, for students to have successful dialogue, texts need to be engaging (Reznitskaya and Wilkinson 2017).”

• cites Reznitskaya and Wilkinson 2017Not checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Texts about a controversy or unresolved issues, clear and relevant to primary students, can support their development of multiple viewpoints.

“Many previous studies provided evidence that texts about a controversy or unresolved issues, which are clear and relevant to primary students, can support their development of multiple viewpoints; appropriate texts provide opportunities for students to weigh up evidence and formulate the 'best' or most reasonable solution or interpretation (Reznitskaya et al. 2009).”

• cites Reznitskaya et al. 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Students' comprehension levels in the two classes were approximately the same.

“The school principal and Chinese language teachers ensured that students' comprehension levels in the two classes were approximately the same.”

May combine two claims.

Zhang, Wijekumar, and Han (2021) found only 20% of the text activities in the latest Grade 4 textbooks published by People's Education Press were designed to promote students' high-level reading comprehension, with most texts focused on literal understanding.

“Zhang, Wijekumar, and Han (2021) analysed the latest versions of Grade 4 textbooks published by People's Education Press.They found only 20% of the text activities were designed to promote students' high-level reading comprehension, with most of the texts focused on literal understanding of texts.”

• cites Zhang, Wijekumar, and Han 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The quality of textbooks plays a crucial role in reading instruction.

“The quality of textbooks plays a crucial role in reading instruction (Wijekumar et al. 2021).”

• cites Wijekumar et al. 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Teachers often regard official texts as univocal, meaning these texts have a singular, unambiguous and even obvious meaning.

“In many cases, teachers often regard official texts as univocal, which means these texts have a singular, unambiguous and even obvious meaning (Barak and Lefstein 2022).”

• cites Barak and Lefstein 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Adequate prior knowledge of the text topic can facilitate basic reading comprehension, counter cohesion gaps, generate successful inferences and construct a situational model of text to support comprehension at higher levels.

“Adequate prior knowledge of the text topic can not only facilitate basic reading comprehension (Hattan and Alexander 2020) but also counter cohesion gaps in the text, generate successful inferences and construct a situational model of text to support comprehension at higher levels (Li 2017).”

• cites Hattan and Alexander 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Li 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Research embedded in practice can potentially have a greater real-world influence by solving pressing problems in a specific educational context.

“Hence, research embedded in practice can potentially have a greater 'real-world' influence by solving pressing problems in a specific educational context (Lai et al. 2020).”

• cites Lai et al. 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

An interesting topic is important in fostering Chinese children's comprehension and influencing students' discussion.

“Prior studies have identified the importance of an interesting topic in fostering Chinese children's comprehension and influencing students' discussion (e.g., Cheng et al. 2015).”

• cites Cheng et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The particular stance with which teachers and students approach texts shapes their aims, expectations and interpretations.

“In language arts education, the particular stance with which teachers and students approach texts shapes their aims, expectations and interpretations (Rabinowitz, 1998).”

• cites Rabinowitz, 1998Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Ethics permission was sought and approved by the University Research Ethics Committee.

“Ethics permission was sought and approved by the University Research Ethics Committee.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The two classes were randomly assigned to either the treatment or the comparison conditions.

“As a quasi-experimental study, the two classes were randomly assigned to either the treatment or the comparison conditions.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

For years, education in China has been criticised for its emphasis on preparing students for tests rather than improving students' deep reading comprehension.

“For years, education in China has been criticised for its emphasis on preparing students for tests rather than improving students' deep reading comprehension (Li 2017).”

• cites Li 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Chinn, Anderson, and Waggoner (2001) showed how different stances, such as expressive, efferent and critical-analytical stances, shape instructional frames of reading lessons.

“Chinn, Anderson, and Waggoner (2001) showed how different stances, such as expressive, efferent and critical-analytical stances, shape instructional frames of reading lessons.”

• cites Chinn, Anderson, and Waggoner 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The reader's stance towards a text determines the type of instruction the reader engages in with texts.

“After all, the reader's stance towards a text determines the type of instruction the reader engages in with texts (Paulson and Armstrong 2009).”

• cites Paulson and Armstrong 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Students are more likely to take a critical-analytic stance towards texts to consider the text critically and evaluate the text information through drawing on their interpretations, or rejecting, accepting or remaining neutral to the text's representation.

“Students are more likely to take a criticalanalytic stance towards texts to consider the text critically and evaluate the text information through drawing on their interpretations, or rejecting, accepting or remaining neutral to the text's representation (Mullis et al. 2012).”

• cites Mullis et al. 2012Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

Most prescribed texts in Chinese primary textbooks are not dialogic, leaving students with fewer opportunities to provide multiple interpretations of text content.

“Most prescribed texts in Chinese primary textbooks are not dialogic, leaving students with fewer opportunities to provide multiple interpretations of text content (Cheng et al. 2015).”

• cites Cheng et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Despite the pragmatic constraints of teaching in rural China, such as the lack of texts with dialogic potential, prescribed instructional goals and regimented assessments, a dialogic stance or belief could be achieved by providing rural teachers with long-term PD and ongoing support about dialogic practices.

“Despite the pragmatic constraints of teaching in rural China, such as the lack of texts with dialogic potential, prescribed instructional goals and regimented assessments, a dialogic stance or belief could be achieved by providing rural teachers with long-term PD and ongoing support about dialogic practices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The efferent stance about texts might restrict students from exploring multiple interpretations of texts.

“however, Soter et al. (2008) argued that the efferent stance about texts might restrict students from exploring multiple interpretations of texts.”

• cites Soter et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

This study also indicated a change in how rural students approached texts, and the potential of the dialogic approach to foster deep engagement with reading materials.

“This study also indicated a change in how rural students approached texts, and the potential of the dialogic approach to foster deep engagement with reading materials.”

May combine two claims.

If the rural teacher could modify her beliefs, have a dialogic intention for the tasks and improve teaching practices, the rural students would be able to have more dialogic discourse.

“Therefore, if the rural teacher could modify her beliefs, have a dialogic intention for the tasks and improve teaching practices, the rural students would be able to have more dialogic discourse.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Another explanation for students' shift in their reading stance might be that children's mindsets are more malleable.

“Another explanation for students' shift in their reading stance might be that children's mindsets are more malleable.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Student stance on discussion of texts is associated with particular instructional decisions.

“It has been posited that student stance on discussion of texts is associated with particular instructional decisions (Wilkinson, Murphy, and Binici 2015).”

• cites Wilkinson, Murphy, and Binici 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

As with any quasi-experimental study, it was not possible to implement random assignment of students without mixing students across classrooms; therefore, our findings are subject to questions regarding internal validity.

“As with any quasi-experimental study, it was not possible to implement random assignment of students without mixing students across classrooms (Creswell and Plano Clark 2018); therefore, our findings are subject to questions regarding internal validity.”

• cites Creswell and Plano Clark 2018Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Students' efferent stance can enable them to adopt particular, specified interpretations of literary texts.

“and to adopt particular, specified interpretations of literary texts (Reynolds et al. 2021)”

• cites Reynolds et al. 2021 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Students enhanced their epistemic cognition when they engaged in critical-analytical thinking about texts by elaborating their explanations, supporting their reasons with evidence, challenging each other and generating counterarguments as rebuttals when supporting a position during text-based discussions.

“Murphy et al. (2018Murphy et al. ( , 2022) ) described how students enhanced their epistemic cognition when they engaged in critical-analytical thinking about texts by elaborating their explanations, supporting their reasons with evidence, challenging each other and generating counterarguments as rebuttals when supporting a position during text-based discussions.”

• cites Murphy et al. (2018, 2022)Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Stances towards texts can be thought of as an aspect of epistemic cognition.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The more constructivist instructional approaches can not only predict greater constructivist cognition among students but also seem to foster students' critical reasoning and argumentation skills.

“The finding is in line with research indicating that the more constructivist instructional approaches can not only predict greater constructivist cognition among students but also seem to foster students' critical reasoning and argumentation skills (Ryu and Sandoval 2012).”

• cites Ryu and Sandoval 2012 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This stance can help students obtain targeted information from texts and focus solely on the information necessary to pass exams.

“Although this stance can help students obtain targeted information from texts and focus solely on the information necessary to pass exams (Barak and Lefstein 2022)”

• cites Barak and Lefstein 2022Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Students' ability to 'examine the credibility of the source or the veracity of the claims, reasoning, or evidence presented in a given text' is best understood as an aspect of epistemic cognition.

“In the current study, students' shifts in stances towards texts are supported by Murphy et al.'s (2022) study that demonstrated students' ability to 'examine the credibility of the source or the veracity of the claims, reasoning, or evidence presented in a given text' (2), best understood as an aspect of epistemic cognition.”

• cites Murphy et al. (2022) sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Stances towards texts can be thought of as an aspect of epistemic cognition.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

When the bulk of classroom questions are predetermined, teachers are likely to maintain authority over answers, leaving fewer opportunities for students to engage in dialogic and exploratory interpretations and being more likely to generate 'flat, reductive readings' of literary texts.

“When the bulk of classroom questions are predetermined, teachers are likely to maintain authority over answers, leaving fewer opportunities for students to engage in dialogic and exploratory interpretations and being more likely to generate 'flat, reductive readings' of literary texts (Chick, Hassel, and Haynie 2009, 40).”

• cites Chick, Hassel, and Haynie 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

It is a very small sample with unique characteristics.

“It is a very small sample with unique characteristics.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Students' efferent stance towards the text can enable them to acquire and retrieve particular information from a text.

“Students' efferent stance towards the text can enable them to acquire and retrieve particular information from a text (Mart 2019)”

• cites Mart 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

As a comprehensive case study, we only focus on two classes of fourth-grade students and teachers from a specific rural context in China.

“Furthermore, as a comprehensive case study, we only focus on two classes of fourth-grade students and teachers from a specific rural context in China.”