Practitioner Review: What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and its possible causes still attract controversy. Genes, pre and perinatal risks, psychosocial factors and environmental toxins have all been considered as potential risk factors. METHOD: This review (focussing on literature published since 1997, selected from a search of PubMed) critically considers putative risk factors with a focus on genetics and selected environmental risks, examines their relationships with ADHD and discusses the likelihood that these risks are causal as well as some of the main implications. RESULTS: No single risk factor explains ADHD. Both inherited and noninherited factors contribute and their effects are interdependent. ADHD is familial and heritable. Research into the inherited and molecular genetic contributions to ADHD suggest an important overlap with other neurodevelopmental problems, notably, autism spectrum disorders. Having a biological relative with ADHD, large, rare copy number variants, some small effect size candidate gene variants, extreme early adversity, pre and postnatal exposure to lead and low birth weight/prematurity have been most consistently found as risk factors, but none are yet known to be definitely causal. There is a large literature documenting associations between ADHD and a wide variety of putative environmental risks that can, at present, only be regarded as correlates. Findings from research designs that go beyond simply testing for association are beginning to contest the robustness of some environmental exposures previously thought to be ADHD risk factors. CONCLUSIONS: The genetic risks implicated in ADHD generally tend to have small effect sizes or be rare and often increase risk of many other types of psychopathology. Thus, they cannot be used for prediction, genetic testing or diagnostic purposes beyond what is predicted by a family history. There is a need to consider the possibility of parents and siblings being similarly affected and how this might impact on engagement with families, influence interventions and require integration with adult services. Genetic contributions to disorder do not necessarily mean that medications are the treatment of choice. We also consider how findings might influence the conceptualisation of ADHD, public health policy implications and why it is unhelpful and incorrect to dichotomise genetic/biological and environmental explanations. It is essential that practitioners can interpret genetic and aetiological research findings and impart informed explanations to families.
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Most comorbid conditions usually appear later in development and can manifest as a result of ADHD, but this is not always the case with early stage behavioural problems directly related to ADHD.
“Most of these conditions/disorders usually appear later in development and can manifest as a result of ADHD, but this is not always the case with early stage behavioural problems directly related to ADHD [58].”
From Molecular Characterisation of the Mechanism of Action of Stimulant Drugs Lisdexamfetamine and Methylphenidate on ADHD Neurobiology: A Review (2022) · cites this paper as [58]
In “The overlap of ADHD with other developmental and psychiatric disorders” (page not provided), the review says some comorbid problems can present later and might arise as a consequence of ADHD, with an exception for early-onset conduct problems. It does not say that most comorbid conditions usually appear later; the claim overstates that part. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredExtreme parental discord, poor socioeconomic status, paternal violence, inconsistent parent-child relationships, maternal psychiatric disability, parental disapproval, family anxiety and foster placement have been reported as family random factors associated with behavioural disorders in childhood.
“Regarding the influence of psychosocial adversity in ADHD disorder development, extreme parental discord, poor socioeconomic status, paternal violence, inconsistent parent–child relationships, maternal psychiatric disability, parental disapproval, family anxiety and foster placement have been reported as family random factors associated with behavioural disorders in childhood [58, 70].”
From Molecular Characterisation of the Mechanism of Action of Stimulant Drugs Lisdexamfetamine and Methylphenidate on ADHD Neurobiology: A Review (2022) · cites this paper as [58]
The ‘Family adversity and early care-giving’ section reports associations of low income, family adversity, maltreatment and family conflict with child mental health problems, including ADHD. It does not report the full list of specific factors in the claim, such as paternal violence, maternal psychiatric disability and parental disapproval. It also cautions that, except for rare extreme early deprivation, psychosocial adversity has not clearly been shown to cause ADHD. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredReduced maternal thyroid capacity, poor maternal wellness, maternal age, post-maturity of the foetus, long working hours, maternal stress, foetal stress, prenatal exposure to alcohol and tobacco, and antepartum haemorrhage are prenatal factors that could influence ADHD development.
“Reduced maternal thyroid capacity, poor maternal wellness, maternal age, post-maturity of the foetus, long working hours, maternal stress, foetal stress, prenatal exposure to alcohol and tobacco, and antepartum haemorrhage are prenatal factors that could influence ADHD development [54, 58, 65].”
From Molecular Characterisation of the Mechanism of Action of Stimulant Drugs Lisdexamfetamine and Methylphenidate on ADHD Neurobiology: A Review (2022) · cites this paper as [58]
The “Pre and perinatal risks” section associates maternal smoking and stress with offspring ADHD and reports a less consistent association for prenatal alcohol exposure. It does not identify reduced maternal thyroid capacity, poor maternal wellness, maternal age, post-maturity, long working hours, foetal stress, or antepartum haemorrhage as ADHD risks; it discusses prematurity, not post-maturity. The review also cautions that causation has not been established. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEnvironmental factors such as chemical contaminants (pesticides and harmful agricultural chemicals) may promote the neural structure impairments involved in ADHD.
“Environmental factors such as chemical contaminants (pesticides and harmful agricultural chemicals) may promote the neural structure impairments involved in ADHD [58].”
From Molecular Characterisation of the Mechanism of Action of Stimulant Drugs Lisdexamfetamine and Methylphenidate on ADHD Neurobiology: A Review (2022) · cites this paper as [58]
The Environmental toxins section says organic pollutants may damage neural systems implicated in ADHD. The Pesticides section reports associations between pesticide exposure and ADHD-related outcomes, but does not show that pesticides cause structural neural impairments; it also notes inconsistent findings. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe probability of developing ADHD is around 2-8 times more likely in close relatives of patients with ADHD than relatives of unaffected individuals.
“Another factor that supports an ADHD genetic background is the probability of developing ADHD being around 2–8 times more likely in the close relatives of patients with ADHD than relatives of unaffected individuals [58].”
From Molecular Characterisation of the Mechanism of Action of Stimulant Drugs Lisdexamfetamine and Methylphenidate on ADHD Neurobiology: A Review (2022) · cites this paper as [58]
Several early environmental risk factors for ADHD are associated with increased inflammation, including maternal infection, smoking, obesity, poor diet, and pollutant exposure.
“early environmental factors are also implicated in the etiology of ADHD including many factors associated with increased inflammation such as maternal infection (Werenberg Dreier et al., 2016), maternal smoking (Becker et al., 2008; Biederman, 2005; Mick et al., 2002; Neuman et al., 2007; Silva et al., 2014; Thapar et al., 2013), maternal obesity and poor diet (Andersen et al., 2018; Buss et al.,”
From Neuroinflammation as a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (2019) · cites this paper as Thapar et al., 2013
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Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
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Influence of gut microbiota on neuropsychiatric disorders
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Comorbidity prevalence and treatment outcome in children and adolescents with ADHD
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A Review of Heterogeneity in Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
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“…studies (Faraone et al., 2005; Gizer et al., 2009), linkage studies (Ogdie et al., 2004), meta-analyses (Neale et al., 2010), and recent reviews (Thapar et al., 2013; Klein et al., 2017) have identified a number of genes that might contribute to the onset of childhood ADHD (cADHD), including,…”
BackgroundSchizophrenia and the neurodevelopmental continuum:evidence from genomics
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Neuroinflammation as a risk factor for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
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Prenatal Risk Factors and the Etiology of ADHD—Review of Existing Evidence
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Population impact of preterm birth and low birth weight on developmental disabilities in US children
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Annual Research Review: Optimal outcomes of child and adolescent mental illness
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Attention as an effect not a cause
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The Impact of Toxins on the Developing Brain
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The evidence base for family therapy and systemic interventions for child‐focused problems
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Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
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A Review on the Role of Inflammation in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
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Self-citationSocioeconomic Associations with ADHD: Findings from a Mediation Analysis
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Gut microbiota profiles in treatment-naïve children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
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Comorbidity of ADHD and incontinence in children
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Tor, H. T., Ooi, C. P., Lim-Ashworth, N., Wei, J. K. E., Jahmunah, V., Oh, S. L., Acharya, U. R., & Fung, D. S. S. (2021) · Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2021.105941 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Does serotonin deficit mediate susceptibility to ADHD?
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Zebrafish as a Model of Neurodevelopmental Disorders
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Association of Maternal Neurodevelopmental Risk Alleles With Early-Life Exposures
Leppert, B., Havdahl, A., Riglin, L., Jones, H. J., Zheng, J., Smith, G. D., Tilling, K. M., Thapar, A., Reichborn‐Kjennerud, T., & Stergiakouli, E. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.0774 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Self-citationMolecular genetic studies of ADHD and its candidate genes: A review
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Parental smoking during pregnancy and ADHD in children: the Danish national birth cohort.
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An overview on neurobiology and therapeutics of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
da Silva, B. S., Grevet, E. H., Silva, L. C. F., Ramos, J. K. N., Rovaris, D. L., & Bau, C. H. D. (2023) · Discover Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s44192-022-00030-1 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Discoveries on the Genetics of ADHD in the 21st Century: New Findings and Their Implications
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The Potential Influence of the Bacterial Microbiome on the Development and Progression of ADHD
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The nature and nurture of ADHD and its comorbidities: A narrative review on twin studies
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Brain morphology in school-aged children with prenatal opioid exposure: A structural MRI study.
Sirnes, E., Oltedal, L., Bartsch, H., Eide, G., Elgen, I., & Aukland, S. M. (2017) · Early Human Development · doi:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2017.01.009 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
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- Authors
- Thapar, A., Cooper, M., Eyre, O., & Langley, K.
- Affiliations
- Cardiff University (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Thapar, Anita
- Venue
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2012-09-11
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3-16
- ISSN
- 0021-9630 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-7610
- PMC
- PMC3572580
- OpenAlex
- W1791898768
- Cited by
- 701
- References
- 119
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 43 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 39 · 2022: 59 · 2021: 72 · 2020: 55 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 54 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 67 · 2015: 51 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 1
- FWCI
- 5.27
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust
- Cardiff University
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, genetic risk factors, heritability, copy number variation, candidate gene variants, environmental risk factors, lead exposure, low birth weight, preterm birth, autism spectrum disorder, family history (medicine), psychosocial adversity, neurodevelopmental disorders, public health policy
- MeSH terms
- Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Developmental Disabilities, Environment, Female, Humans, Pregnancy, Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects, Psychosocial Deprivation, Risk Factors, Comorbidity, Genetic Predisposition to Disease, Gene-Environment Interaction
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