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Cited by 338Child Abuse and TraumaStress Responses and CortisolChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development

The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

Open access
Cicchetti, Dante, Rogosch, Fred A, Gunnar, Megan R, Toth, Sheree L·2010·Child Development
DOI 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01393.xPMC PMC2846099
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Abstract

The impact of early physical and sexual abuse (EPA/SA) occurring in the first 5 years of life was investigated in relation to depressive and internalizing symptomatology and diurnal cortisol regulation. In a summer camp context, school-aged maltreated (n = 265) and nonmaltreated (n = 288) children provided morning and late afternoon saliva samples on 5 consecutive days. Child self-report and adult observer reports of child internalizing and depressive symptoms were obtained. Children experiencing EPA/SA and high depressive or internalizing symptoms uniquely exhibited an attenuated diurnal decrease in cortisol, indicative of neuroendocrine dysregulation. These results were specific to EPA/SA rather than later onset physical or sexual abuse or early occurring neglect or emotional maltreatment.

Verified 2026-10-06 · 6 references not checked yet

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study tested whether physical or sexual abuse during the first five years of life, combined with high depressive or internalizing symptoms, predicts atypical daytime cortisol regulation in school-aged children. It found that only children with early physical/sexual abuse and high symptoms showed a flatter morning-to-afternoon cortisol decline, while other maltreatment timing and subtype features did not explain the pattern.

Key findings

  • Among 553 children (265 maltreated, 288 nonmaltreated), early physical/sexual abuse (EPA/SA; n = 60) was linked to more internalizing symptoms: 33.3% of EPA/SA children had high symptoms versus 14.9% of nonmaltreated children and 21.5% of other maltreated children.
  • A significant group × symptom level × time-of-day interaction, F(2,545) = 6.07, p = .002, showed that high-symptom EPA/SA children had a smaller cortisol decline from morning to late afternoon (0.12) than high-symptom NEPA/SA children (0.23) and nonmaltreated children (0.25).
  • Specificity analyses indicated that early neglect/emotional maltreatment and later-onset physical/sexual abuse did not show the same pattern; other maltreatment parameters such as onset, recency, chronicity, diversity, and perpetrator type were not significant moderators (p values ranged from .16 to .99).
  • Girls had a greater diurnal cortisol decrease than boys (0.27 vs. 0.22), and older children had a steeper decrease than younger children (0.29 vs. 0.19), but neither gender nor age moderated the main early-abuse/high-symptom effect.

Methods

  • School-aged children (ages 7–13; M = 10.02, SD = 1.87) attending a summer day camp provided morning (9 a.m.) and late afternoon (4 p.m.) saliva samples on five consecutive days; cortisol was assayed and log-transformed, then averaged across days.
  • Maltreatment status and subtype/timing were coded from Department of Human Services records using the Maltreatment Classification System; EPA/SA was defined as physical or sexual abuse before age 5, and comparisons included other maltreated children and nonmaltreated children.
  • Depressive/internalizing symptoms came from child self-report (Children’s Depression Inventory) and counselor report (Teacher Report Form internalizing scale); high symptoms were defined as scoring above the clinical cutpoint on either measure, yielding 19.3% classified as symptomatic. Analyses used repeated-measures ANCOVA and follow-up contrasts, covarying age and gender.

Limitations

  • The authors state that physical/sexual abuse could not be fully separated from neglect because the two overlap heavily, especially in low-income samples, so it remains unclear whether abuse-specific features or greater overall severity drove the findings.
  • The authors note that wake-up time was not measured, puberty stage data were not collected, and it is unknown whether the observed cortisol flattening predicts later physical or mental health problems.
  • The text also makes evident that the sample excluded children in foster care or out-of-home placement, likely omitting more extreme maltreatment cases, and the design was cross-sectional, so causal and longitudinal interpretations are limited.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01393.x

Cites

85 of 91 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

25 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

0 of 88 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    In school-aged children, those with early physical and/or sexual abuse before age 5 and high depressive or internalizing symptoms showed a uniquely flatter daytime cortisol decline, indicating neuroendocrine dysregulation.

    “Children experiencing EPA/SA and high depressive or internalizing symptoms uniquely exhibited an attenuated diurnal decrease in cortisol, indicative of neuroendocrine dysregulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: DHS records provide complete and accurate information about children's maltreatment histories, including subtype and timing.
  • Findingown data

    In the current sample, 11.4% of children (n = 63) reported depressive symptoms at the clinical cutpoint.

    “In the current sample, 11.4% (n = 63) of the children reported clinical level depressive symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The high-symptom groups based on the CDI and TRF were significantly but weakly associated, χ2(1, N = 553) = 4.48, p = .03.

    “Similarly, the high symptom level groups for the CDI and TRF were significantly but weakly associated, χ2 (1, N = 553) = 4.48, p = .03.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Using high symptoms on either the CDI or the TRF as the index, 19.3% of children were classified as symptomatic.

    “To combine both perspectives, the presence of high symptoms on either the CDI or the TRF was determined and used as an index of high depressive and internalizing symptomatology, resulting in 19.3% of the children being classified as symptomatic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    CDI and TRF internalizing scores were significantly but weakly correlated, r = .20, p < .001.

    “Overall, the CDI and TRF internalizing scores were significantly but not strongly correlated, r = .20, p < .001.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 42
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 47

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The cortisol result was specific to early physical/sexual abuse and did not extend to later-onset physical or sexual abuse or to early neglect or emotional maltreatment.

    “These results were specific to EPA/SA, rather than later onset physical or sexual abuse or early occurring neglect or emotional maltreatment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: DHS records provide complete and accurate information about children's maltreatment histories, including subtype and timing.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In the sample, 9.9% of participants (n = 55) were classified as having high internalizing problems.

    “In the sample, 9.9% of the participants (n = 55) were classified as having high level internalizing problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Within the EPA/SA group, 80% had experienced physical abuse, 28.3% sexual abuse, and five children had experienced both.

    “Within the EPA/SA group, 80% had experienced physical abuse and 28.3% had experienced sexual abuse; five children had experienced both maltreatment subtypes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Among maltreated children, 89.8% had experienced some maltreatment from their mothers, and this rate did not differ between EPA/SA and NEPA/SA groups.

    “Among the maltreated children 89.8% had experienced some form of maltreatment from their mothers, and this rate did not differ for the EPA/SA (91.7%) versus NEPA/SA children (89.3%) groups, χ2 (1, N = 265) = .29, p = .81.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The EPA/SA high-symptom group (M = 0.12, SD = .24) had a significantly lower cortisol decrease than the later-abuse/low-symptom group (M = 0.29, SD = .20, p = .05) and the EPA/SA low-symptom group (M = 0.27, SD = .17, p = .001).

    “The EPA/SA group with high symptoms (M = 0.12, SD = .24 had a significantly lower decrease in cortisol than the later abuse/low level symptom group (M = 0.29, SD = .20; p = .05) and the EPA/SA group with low level symptoms (M = 0.27, SD = .17, p = .001); however, a significant contrast was not found with the later abuse and low level symptom group (M = 0.21, SD = .20; p = .25).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For the EPA/SA group, maltreatment onset occurred in infancy for 43.3%, toddlerhood for 25.0%, and preschool for 31.7%.

    “For the EPA/SA group, the onset of maltreatment had occurred in infancy for 43.3%, in toddlerhood for 25.0%, and in preschool for 31.7% of the early abuse group.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The groups did not differ significantly at either morning or afternoon time of day when examined separately.

    “Although the group differences were in the expected direction (see Figure 1b), the groups did not differ significantly at either time of day.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Age did not moderate the group by symptom level effect on diurnal cortisol decline; the three-way interaction was not significant, β = .01, p = .73.

    “Importantly, the results did not yield a significant three-way interaction, β = .01, p = .73, indicating that age did not moderate the overall findings observed involving attenuated diurnal decrease in children with early abuse and high symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Father-as-perpetrator rates were comparable between EPA/SA and NEPA/SA groups (43.3% vs. 42.0%).

    “The rate of fathers as perpetrator also was comparable by group, χ2 (1, N = 265) = .04, p = .88, 43.3% versus 42.0%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    63.3% of the EPA/SA group had been maltreated during toddlerhood and 93.3% during the preschool period.

    “Moreover, 63.3 % of the children had been maltreated during the toddler period and 93.3% had been maltreated in the preschool period.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both gender and age were associated with morning-to-afternoon change in cortisol level.

    “We also found that both gender and age were associated with morning to afternoon change in cortisol level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    Forty-one children had onset of physical or sexual abuse beyond the preschool period and were contrasted with the EPA/SA group.

    “Accordingly, children who experienced the onset of physical or sexual abuse beyond the preschool period were identified (n = 41), and these children were contrasted with the EPA/SA group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Gender did not moderate the effects of early abuse and symptom level; the three-way interaction was not significant, β = −.01, p = .82.

    “however, the three-way interaction of early abuse, symptom level, and gender also was not significant, β = −.01, p = .82, indicating that the effects were not operating differently among boys and girls.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the EPA/SA group, 73.3% had experienced neglect and 73.3% had experienced emotional maltreatment.

    “In fact, 73.3% of the children in the EPA/SA group had experienced neglect, and 73.3% had also experienced emotional maltreatment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Chronicity of maltreatment averaged 2.22 developmental periods (SD = .92).

    “Chronicity of maltreatment, as indexed by the number of developmental periods of maltreatment, averaged 2.22 developmental periods (SD = .92).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The EPA/SA group had been exposed to an average of 2.55 maltreatment subtypes (SD = .70).

    “Overall, the EPA/SA group had been exposed to an average of 2.55 subtypes of maltreatment (SD = .70).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The groups did not differ on average morning or afternoon cortisol levels.

    “Finally, as shown in Table 2, the groups did not differ on average morning, F(2,550) = 1.52, p = .22, or afternoon cortisol levels, F(2,550) = .07, p = .94.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Age group (under 10 vs. 10 and older) served as a puberty proxy, and age did not moderate the effects of early abuse and high symptoms.

    “In the absence of pubertal measures, we used age group (under age 10, age 10 and older) as a proxy measure, and as reported earlier, we did not find that age level moderated the effects of early abuse and high symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Cortisol dysregulation was not universal in depression; in this study it appeared only among early abused children with high internalizing and depressive symptoms.

    “Thus, not all individuals with depression exhibited cortisol dysregulation; we found it only for the early physically or sexually abused children with high internalizing and depressive symptomatology”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Adverse parental care early in development increases fearful and anxious behavior and reactivity in neurobiological systems for defensive behavior and stress reactions.

    “a large body of animal studies shows that adverse parental care during early development increases fearful, anxious behavior and shapes increased reactivity in neurobiological systems involved in defensive behaviors and physiological stress reactions”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gunnar & Vazquez, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Maltreated children have an increased risk for internalizing problems and depression in childhood and major depressive disorder in adulthood.

    “Among the array of difficulties exhibited by maltreated children, one of the most prevalent and widely documented is an increased risk for internalizing problems and depression in childhood and major depressive disorder in adulthood”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gibb, Wheeler, Alloy, & Abramson, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kaplow & Widom, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Keiley, Howe, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 2001 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Individuals genetically at risk for depression may be most susceptible to early experience effects.

    “while also suggesting that individuals at genetic risk for depression may be the most susceptible to these early experience effects”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heim & Nemeroff, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    CRH and cortisol are critical in brain development, influencing neurotrophic factors and gene transcription.

    “both the releasing hormone (corticotropin-releasing hormone, CRH) and the final hormonal product of this system (cortisol in humans) play critical roles in brain development, affecting neurotrophic factors and regulating gene transcription”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gunnar & Vazquez, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Inadequate or abusive early parenting persistently sensitizes stress- and emotion-regulating neurocircuits.

    “Thus, these animal studies suggest that inadequate or abusive parenting early in life persistently sensitizes the neurocircuits that are involved in the regulation of stress and emotion”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heim & Nemeroff, 2001

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Coders achieved acceptable reliability with criterion standards, weighted kappas .86 to .98.

    “Coders demonstrated acceptable reliability (weighted κ‘s with the criterion ranging from .86 to .98).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    In the present sample, the CDI total scale had an internal consistency of .85.

    “In the current investigation, internal consistency was .85.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    DHS record searches and maternal interviews were used to verify absence of maltreatment in the nonmaltreated group.

    “DHS record searches were completed for these families to verify the absence of any record of child maltreatment. Trained research assistants also interviewed mothers of children recruited for the nonmaltreatment group to confirm a lack of DHS involvement and prior maltreatment experiences”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Absence of documented maltreatment in DHS records and maternal interview indicates no maltreatment history.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Morning saliva samples were collected at least one hour after awakening, avoiding the cortisol awakening response.

    “Given the approximate 45-minute transportation time and the time spent being greeted by camp staff, children had been awake at least one hour prior to providing the morning saliva samples, thus avoiding the period of the dynamic cortisol awakening response”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Susman, Dockray, Dorn, Schiefelbein, Herwehe, & Heaton, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Maltreatment subtypes differ in onset, severity, and recurrence.

    “Moreover, these maltreatment subtypes have different onsets, occur with varying severities, and can recur”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bolger, Patterson, & Kupersmidt, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites English et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Manly et al., 2001 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    It is unclear whether type, severity, or developmental timing of maltreatment accounts for HPA dysregulation in high-internalizing or depressed maltreated children.

    “While dysregulation of the HPA axis appears to be associated with maltreatment for children who are high in internalizing problems or who are clinically depressed, it remains unclear whether this is due to the type, severity, or developmental timing of the maltreatment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Earlier onset of sexual abuse predicts higher anxiety years later.

    “Kaplow, Dodge, Amaya-Jackson, and Saxe (2005) discovered that an earlier age of sexual abuse onset predicted higher levels of anxiety years later.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kaplow, Dodge, Amaya-Jackson, and Saxe (2005)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Across years, TRF internalizing interrater reliabilities ranged from .56 to .84, with a mean of .68, a pattern consistent with the difficulty of observer ratings of internalizing symptoms.

    “Across the years, reliabilities for internalizing ranged from .56 to .84 (M = .68), consistent with the greater difficulty in observers rating internalizing symptoms (Achenbach, 1991).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Achenbach, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The TRF internalizing scale had an internal consistency of .84 in this study.

    “Internal consistency was .84.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The TRF is a widely used and validated instrument for assessing behavioral disturbance from a teacher's perspective.

    “The TRF is a widely used and validated instrument to assess behavioral disturbance from the perspective of teachers, and the measure was used in the present study, because camp counselors are able to observe similar behaviors to that of teachers.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Achenbach, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Camp counselors can observe behaviors similar to those teachers observe, making the TRF appropriate for use in the camp setting.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The MCS is a reliable and valid method for classifying maltreatment.

    “The MCS is a reliable and valid method for classifying maltreatment”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bolger et al., 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites English et al., 2005 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: DHS records provide complete and accurate information about children's maltreatment histories, including subtype and timing.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    The observed CDI-TRF correspondence matches the typical level of agreement between different informants about child internalizing symptoms.

    “This level of correspondence is consistent with the degree of agreement typically found between different sources of report for child internalizing symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Prolonged HPA hyper-activation tends to lead to down-regulation, so chronic stressors may first cause hyper- and later hypo-activity.

    “The HPA axis tends to down-regulate in response to prolonged hyper-activation; thus in response to chronic stressors first hyper- and later hypo-activity of the axis may be noted”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miller, Chen and Zhou, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Nonmaltreated children were recruited from TANF to be demographically comparable to maltreated children.

    “Consequently, demographically comparable nonmaltreated children were recruited from families receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The TRF has 118 frequency-rated items and assesses internalizing, externalizing, and total behavior problems.

    “The TRF, containing 118 items rated for frequency, assesses two broadband dimensions of child symptomatology, internalizing and externalizing, as well as total behavior problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Achenbach, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Chronic stress and negative emotionality are associated with slightly higher late afternoon/evening cortisol but often lower early morning cortisol.

    “With regards to basal cortisol, chronic stress and negative emotionality tend to be associated with slight elevations in the late afternoon and evening, but often lower than typical levels in the early morning”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites DeSantis, Adam, Doanne, Mineka, Zinbarg, & Craske, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Gunnar & Quevedo, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The CDI is a commonly used child self-report measure of depressive symptoms in school-age children.

    “The CDI is a widely used self-report questionnaire to assess depressive symptomatology in school-age children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kovacs, 1982, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Serious neglect during preschool is associated with higher internalizing symptoms.

    “One study that did address all subtypes of maltreatment found that serious neglect experienced during the preschool period was associated with a higher rate of internalizing symptoms”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Manly et al., 2001 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A T-score of 60 on the TRF internalizing scale was used as the threshold for high internalizing symptoms.

    “Utilizing the T-Scores for the internalizing scale, a cutpoint of 60T was used to designate the presence or absence of high internalizing symptoms (Achenbach, 1991).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Achenbach, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A CDI total score of 19 or higher is an established threshold for clinically significant depressive symptoms.

    “A total score of 19 and above has been established as a cutpoint for clinical level depressive symptoms (Kovacs, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kovacs, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Kovacs (2004) reports that CDI total-scale internal consistency has ranged from .71 to .89 and that its validity is well established.

    “Kovacs (2004) reports that internal consistency for the total scale has ranged from .71 to .89, and validity has been well established.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kovacs, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Adults abused as children show HPA dysregulation mainly if they also have major depression, while depressed adults without early abuse do not show such dysregulation.

    “There is increasing evidence that adults, who were abused as children, exhibit dysregulation of the HPA axis only or primarily if they have major depression and that adults with major depression in the absence of early child abuse do not show evidence of neuroendocrine dysregulation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Heim et al., 2004, 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The camp setting allowed consistent saliva collection at uniform times across the week.

    “The camp context allowed for a setting where a consistent collection of saliva samples could occur at uniform times across the camp week.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Research assistants conducting individual sessions were unaware of hypotheses and maltreatment status.

    “Trained research assistants, who also were unaware of research hypotheses and maltreatment status, conducted individual research sessions with children”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Animal evidence indicates that adverse or maltreating care early in life has long-lasting effects.

    “Indeed the empirical evidence gleaned from rodent and nonhuman primate investigation indicates that adverse or maltreating (i.e., neglectful and abusive) care early in an animal’s life has long-lasting effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tarullo & Gunnar, 2006 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § The Differential Impacts of Early Physical and Sexual Abuse and Internalizing Problems on Daytime Cortisol Rhythm in School-Aged Children

    Harsh physical punishment before age five is related to higher teacher-rated internalizing behaviors in kindergarten.

    “Another investigation indicated that the experience of harsh physical punishment before age five was related to higher teacher ratings of internalizing behaviors in kindergarten children”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Keiley et al., 2001 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The groups did not differ in age, race/ethnicity, or welfare history.

    “The groups did not differ in age, race/ethnicity, or in family history of receiving welfare benefits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Camp counselors were unaware of children's maltreatment status and study hypotheses.

    “Each group was led by three trained camp counselors, who were unaware of the maltreatment status of children and the hypotheses of the study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The proportion of boys differed between nonmaltreated and both maltreated groups, so gender was controlled in analyses.

    “The proportion of boys differed between the NC and both the EPA/SA and NEPA/SA groups, χ2 (2) = 17.86, p < .001; thus, gender was controlled in analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Families with preventive DHS services for maltreatment risk were excluded to reduce unidentified maltreatment.

    “families who had received preventive services through DHS due to concerns over risk for maltreatment were excluded from the sample to reduce the potential for unidentified maltreatment existing within this group.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Absence of documented maltreatment in DHS records and maternal interview indicates no maltreatment history.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Neither the Hart et al. study nor the Kaufman study examined the developmental timing of maltreatment subtypes.

    “Neither the Hart et al. study nor the Kaufman et al. study examined the influence of the developmental timing of maltreatment subtypes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hart et al., 1996 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kaufman, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Very young children may be less able than older children to identify cues that predict an abusive attack, and this unpredictability may produce chronic stress and hypervigilance.

    “Very young children also may be less able than older children to discern the cues predictive of an abusive attack, and this lack of predictability may engender chronic stress and hypervigilance to aggression in these youngsters, even when abusive events are not occurring (Rieder & Cicchetti, 1989; Teisl & Cicchetti, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Rieder & Cicchetti, 1989 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Teisl & Cicchetti, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The EPA/SA group with high depressive/internalizing symptoms showed a smaller daytime cortisol decrease, or attenuated slope, due to slightly but not significantly lower morning and slightly but not significantly higher afternoon levels.

    “Thus, the EPA/SA group with high depressive or internalizing symptoms was distinguished by the smaller decrease or attenuated slope of the daytime diurnal rhythm of cortisol, due to slightly but not significantly lower AM and slightly but not significantly higher afternoon levels than the other children.”
    • Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · plain
      “Second, children experiencing early abuse who had high internalizing symptoms exhibited an atypical flattening of cortisol production over the daytime hours.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kaufman (1991) reported that maltreated and depressed children were less likely than non-depressed maltreated children to show a 9 AM to 4 PM cortisol decrease.

    “Kaufman (1991) noted that maltreated and depressed children in her sample were less likely than non-depressed maltreated children to show a decrease in cortisol from 9 AM to 4 PM.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kaufman, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kaplow and Widom (2007) reported that maltreatment onset in the first five years of life predicted more anxiety and depression symptoms in adulthood.

    “For example, Kaplow and Widom (2007) reported that an earlier occurrence of maltreatment, defined as onset of maltreatment in the first 5 years of life, predicted more symptoms of anxiety and depression in adulthood.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kaplow and Widom (2007) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The observed pattern differs from that in adults with clinical depression but agrees with two prior reports on depressed maltreated children in day-camp settings.

    “Whereas the pattern we noted is not the same as that seen among adults with clinical depression, the findings are consistent with those described in two other reports on depressed, maltreated children studied in a day camp setting (Hart et al., 1996; Kaufman, 1991).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hart et al., 1996 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kaufman, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    School-aged physically abused children have been shown to be highly sensitive to degraded threat signals, which may reduce constant vigilance in an abusive home.

    “School-aged physically abused children, on the other hand, have been shown to be highly sensitive to even very degraded signals of threat, which although potentially maladaptive in some contexts, may provide some relief from constant vigilance in the abusive home (Pollak, Cicchetti, & Klorman, 1998; Pollak & Sinha, 2002; Shackman, Shackman, & Pollak, 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Pollak, Cicchetti, & Klorman, 1998

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pollak & Sinha, 2002 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Shackman, Shackman, & Pollak, 2007 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The findings are generally applicable to boys and girls and across the age range studied.

    “Thus, the findings are generally applicable for boys and girls, as well as for children across the age range studied.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The present findings suggest that Kaplow and Widom's results might have been stronger if physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect had been examined separately.

    “Our findings suggest that the results of Kaplow and Widom (2007) may have been even more compelling if they had been able to examine physical abuse, sexual abuse, and neglect separately.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kaplow and Widom (2007) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Hart et al. found that maltreated children who were also depressed had a less marked 9 AM to 4 PM cortisol decrease, without differentiating by maltreatment subtype.

    “Hart and colleagues found that maltreated children who were also depressed showed a less marked diurnal decrease in cortisol from 9 AM to 4 PM, although no attempt was made in that study to differentiate patterns based on subtype of maltreatment.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hart et al., 1996 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Kaufman observed that depressed maltreated children were more likely to have experienced abuse in addition to neglect rather than neglect alone.

    “Notably similar to the present study, she also observed that the depressed maltreated children were more likely to have suffered abuse in addition to neglect, rather than solely neglect.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kaufman, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The current study measured only the usual daytime cortisol pattern, not HPA responses to psychosocial stressors or pharmacological challenges.

    “whereas Heim and colleagues examined reactions of the HPA axis to psychosocial stressors and pharmacological challenges, we addressed only the children’s typical daytime pattern of cortisol production.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The Bruce et al. study showed that cortisol regulation is sensitive to transient neglect and relationship disruption, whereas the present study indicates long-term effects of early physical and sexual abuse when the child is not removed from home.

    “Thus, the Bruce and colleagues (2008) study revealed the sensitivity of cortisol regulation to transient impacts of neglect and relationship disruption, while the present study indicated the long-term impacts of early physical and sexual abuse in the absence of the child being removed from the home.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bruce and colleagues (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    It remains unknown whether the observed differences in diurnal cortisol decline predict later physical or mental health risks in children.

    “Finally, we cannot ascertain whether differences in the diurnal decrease in cortisol of the magnitude we observed will be predictive of future physical or mental health risks in children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    It appears improbable that the high-symptom abused children woke earlier than all other children.

    “Although it is possible, it seems unlikely that this was the case.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Adult cohort studies indicate that a similarly flattened diurnal decline predicts greater cardiovascular and immune impairment risk.

    “Several studies of adult cohorts now show that “flattening” of the diurnal decrease in the same range as we observed predicts heightened risk of impairment in cardiovascular and immune system functioning (Heim et al., 2000; Raison & Miller, 2003).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Heim et al., 2000

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Raison & Miller, 2003 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Wake-up time could explain the results only if the high-symptom children abused before age 5 had woken earlier than every other child.

    “in order for differences in wake-up time to have explained our results, high symptom children with physical or sexual abuse prior to age 5 would have to have woken up earlier than all the other children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Puberty is linked to higher cortisol levels and greater stress reactivity.

    “Puberty is associated with increases in cortisol levels and reactivity to stressors (Gunnar et al., 2008; Stroud et al., 2008).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Gunnar et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Stroud et al., 2008

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Abuse may include fear-provoking features that strongly activate stress and emotion pathways and disrupt developing stress and emotion systems.

    “It may be, as we argued above, that abuse (physical or sexual) has features (e.g., provoke feelings of fear) that are particularly potent in activating stress and emotion pathways, and thus in dysregulating rapidly developing stress and emotion neurobiological systems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Without longitudinal data, the study cannot conclude that the reported diurnal decline variations have health consequences.

    “Nonetheless, we cannot conclude that this is the case without longitudinal studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Bruce et al. (2008) found reduced morning cortisol in the first months after a new foster placement among preschool children who had primarily experienced neglect.

    “Studying pre-school children who had primarily experienced neglect, Bruce and colleagues (2008) found reduced morning cortisol in the first months following a new foster placement.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bruce and colleagues (2008)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Early neglect has been shown to have marked effects on young children's social and cognitive competence.

    “While early neglect has been shown to have marked impacts on young children’s social and cognitive competence (Pears & Fisher, 2005), neglect experiences may not be as fear and threat arousing as are the experiences of being physically attacked and hurt.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pears & Fisher, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Some older participants were likely entering puberty, which may have affected their cortisol levels.

    “Undoubtedly some of the older children in our study were entering puberty and this may have influenced their cortisol levels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Some older children in the sample were entering puberty.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Early physical and sexual abuse may be especially harmful to developing brain systems because it occurs when the child is almost entirely dependent on parents for survival.

    “In addition, the impact of early physical and sexual abuse on developing brain systems may be especially pernicious because it occurs during a period when the child is nearly wholly dependent on parents for survival.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
78 of 78

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    DHS records provide complete and accurate information about children's maltreatment histories, including subtype and timing.

    “Comprehensive searches of DHS records were completed and maltreatment information was coded utilizing operational criteria from the maltreatment nosology specified in the Maltreatment Classification System”
    “The MCS codes all available information from DHS records, making independent determinations of maltreatment experiences.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Absence of documented maltreatment in DHS records and maternal interview indicates no maltreatment history.

    “DHS record searches were completed for these families to verify the absence of any record of child maltreatment. Trained research assistants also interviewed mothers of children recruited for the nonmaltreatment group to confirm a lack of DHS involvement and prior maltreatment experiences”
    “Only children from families without any history of documented abuse or neglect were retained in the nonmaltreatment group.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Camp counselors can observe behaviors similar to those teachers observe, making the TRF appropriate for use in the camp setting.

    “the measure was used in the present study, because camp counselors are able to observe similar behaviors to that of teachers.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Children who experience early and extreme maltreatment are generally removed from their homes and placed in foster care.

    “Generally children who experience early and extreme maltreatment are removed from their homes and placed in foster care.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Neglect is almost always present for maltreated children, especially in low-income samples.

    “The clinical reality is that there is an extremely high overlap and that neglect is almost a consistent experience for these children, particularly in low-income samples.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cortisol changes sharply in the first hour after waking and then declines gradually for the rest of the day.

    “Cortisol levels change markedly in the first hour after morning awakening and then gradually decrease over the remainder of the day.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cortisol levels track an individual's wake-up time more closely than clock time.

    “Levels are more closely related to the individual’s wake-up time than to clock time.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Family disorganization would make children's reports of wake-up time error-prone.

    “We chose not to measure wake-up time because we anticipated errors in child reporting of this measure, given the high level of disorganization in many of the families' homes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Some older children in the sample were entering puberty.

    “Undoubtedly some of the older children in our study were entering puberty”
9 of 9

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The relationship between quality of early social environment and adult health appears partly mediated by development of individual differences in neural systems underlying behavioral and endocrine stress responses.

    “The relationship between the quality of the early social environment and health in adulthood appears to be, in part, mediated by the development of individual differences in neural systems that underlie the expression of behavioral and endocrine responses to stress.26-30”

    From Early life adversity and the epigenetic programming of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal function (2014) · cites this paper as [30]

  • Cortisol metabolism has been found to be altered in children who experienced abuse.

    “Cortisol metabolism has been found to be altered in children who experienced abuse.”

    From Deviations from the expectable environment in early childhood and emerging psychopathology (2015) · cites this paper as Cicchetti and Rogosch, 2010

  • Children who were physically or sexually abused in early childhood had smaller diurnal decreases in cortisol than neglected children, but only in abused children with high internalizing symptoms.

    “For example, children who were physically or sexually abused in early childhood had smaller diurnal decreases in cortisol than neglected children, however, this was only found in abused children with high internalizing symptoms (Cicchetti and Rogosch, 2010).”

    From Deviations from the expectable environment in early childhood and emerging psychopathology (2015) · cites this paper as Cicchetti and Rogosch, 2010

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

  • Inconsistent p-value: χ2 (1, N = 265) = .29, p = .81

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .81 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .590. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .81 · recomputed p = .590

  • Inconsistent p-value: χ2 (2, N = 265) = 3.57, p = .06

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .06 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .168. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .168

  • Inconsistent p-value: χ2 (1, N = 265) = .04, p = .88

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .88 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .841. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .88 · recomputed p = .841

  • Inconsistent p-value: χ2 (1, N = 265) = 10.39, p = .002

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .002 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .001. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .001

  • Inconsistent p-value: χ2 (2, N = 493) = 3.52, p = .06

    Minor

    The paper reports p = .06 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p = .172. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.

    Reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .172

5 of 5

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(1) = 0.29reported p = .81 · recomputed p = .590

    “χ2 (1, N = 265) = .29, p = .81”

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(1) = 0.04reported p = .88 · recomputed p = .841

    “χ2 (1, N = 265) = .04, p = .88”

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(1) = 10.39reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .001

    “χ2 (1, N = 265) = 10.39, p = .002”

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(2) = 3.57reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .168

    “χ2 (2, N = 265) = 3.57, p = .06”

  • Doesn’t add upχ²(2) = 3.52reported p = .06 · recomputed p = .172

    “χ2 (2, N = 493) = 3.52, p = .06”

  • Consistentχ²(2) = 17.86reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (2) = 17.86, p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(1) = 4.48reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .034

    “χ2 (1, N = 553) = 4.48, p = .03”

  • ConsistentF(2, 550) = 2.62reported p = .07 · recomputed p = .074

    “F(2,550) = 2.62, p = .07”

  • ConsistentF(2, 550) = 9.14reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2,550) = 9.14, p < .001”

  • Consistentχ²(2) = 11.71reported p = .003 · recomputed p = .003

    “χ2 (2, N = 553) = 11.71, p = .003”

  • Consistentχ²(1) = 11.34reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “χ2 (1, N = 348) = 11.34, p = .001”

  • ConsistentF(2, 550) = 1.52reported p = .22 · recomputed p = .220

    “F(2,550) = 1.52, p = .22”

  • ConsistentF(2, 550) = 0.07reported p = .94 · recomputed p = .932

    “F(2,550) = .07, p = .94”

  • ConsistentF(2, 545) = 6.07reported p = .002 · recomputed p = .002

    “F(2,545) = 6.07, p = .002”

  • ConsistentF(2, 441) = 0.81reported p = .45 · recomputed p = .446

    “F(2,441) = .81, p = .45”

  • ConsistentF(2, 104) = 5.94reported p = .004 · recomputed p = .004

    “F(2,104) = 5.94, p = .004”

  • ConsistentF(2, 101) = 4.27reported p = .017 · recomputed p = .017

    “F(2,101) = 4.27, p = .017”

  • Consistentt(551) = 2.83reported p = .005 · recomputed p = .005

    “t (551) = 2.83, p = .005”

  • Consistentt(551) = 0.74reported p = .46 · recomputed p = .460

    “t (551) = 0.74, p = .46”

  • Consistentt(551) = 2.41reported p = .02 · recomputed p = .016

    “t (551) = 2.41, p = .02”

  • Consistentt(551) = 6.12reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t (551) = 6.12, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(551) = 0.56reported p = .58 · recomputed p = .576

    “t (551) = .56, p = .58”

  • ConsistentF(1, 204) = 13.13reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,204) = 13.13, p < .001”

  • ConsistentF(1, 204) = 7.29reported p = .007 · recomputed p = .008

    “F(1,204) = 7.29, p = .007”

  • ConsistentF(1, 94) = 11.87reported p = .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(1,94) = 11.87, p = .001”

25 of 25

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The same later-abuse subgroup has two different cortisol decreases

    Major

    The later-abuse, low-symptom group is assigned means of both 0.29 and 0.21 in the same set of post hoc comparisons. The two comparisons also give different significance conclusions, making it unclear which subgroup was actually compared with the early-abuse, high-symptom group.

  • McEwen and Stellar citation years disagree

    Minor

    The in-text citation gives 1992, while the corresponding reference entry gives 1993.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

2 of the 93 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. Barnett, 1993, Child abuse, child development, and social policy, 7
  2. Bemporad, 1992, Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology: Vol. 4. Developmental perspectives on depression, 351
  3. Cicchetti, 1991, Thinking clearly about psychology: Essays in honor of Paul E. Meehl: Personality and psychopathology, 346
  4. Cicchetti, 2007, A multi-level approach to resilience [Special issue], Development and Psychopathology, 19
  5. Cicchetti, 1990, Methods of family research: Families at risk, 87
  6. Cicchetti, 2003, Maternal Maltreatment Classification Interview
  7. Cicchetti, 2006, Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Risk, disorder, and adaptation, 129
  8. Dahl, 1996, Rochester symposium on developmental psychopathology: Vol. 7. Adolescence: Opportunities and challenges, 197
  9. Gunnar, 2006, Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Developmental neuroscience, 533
  10. Sedlack, 1996, The Third National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS-3) final report
  11. Toth, 1993, Child abuse, child development, and social policy, 399
  12. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth, and Families, 2000, Child maltreatment 1998: Reports from the states to the National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., Gunnar, M. R., & Toth, S. L.
Affiliations
  • University of Minnesota (US)
  • University of Rochester (US)
Corresponding author
Cicchetti, Dante
ORCID
Venue
Child Development
Publisher
Oxford University Press (OUP)
Published
2010-01-01
Volume
81
Issue
1
Pages
252-269
ISSN
  • 0009-3920 (ISSN-L)
  • 1467-8624
DOI
10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01393.x
PMC
PMC2846099
OpenAlex
W2158907250
Semantic Scholar
4f212debcdb63f0ad76fad03332ac525d2a82419
Cited by
337
References
93
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 9 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 9 · 2022: 12 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 18 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 33 · 2014: 37 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 27
FWCI
32.24
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Child Development (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA12903, DA17741, R01DA012903, R01DA017741)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Keywords
child abuse, internalizing problems, depressive symptoms, diurnal cortisol rhythm, neuroendocrine dysfunction, school-aged children, summer camps, neglect, psychological maltreatment
MeSH terms
Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Anxiety, Child, Child Abuse, Child Abuse, Sexual, Child Behavior Disorders, Circadian Rhythm, Critical Period, Psychological, Depression, Female, Humans, Hydrocortisone, Internal-External Control, Male, Risk Factors, Saliva, Social Environment, Time Factors, Crime Victims

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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