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A skin-inspired organic digital mechanoreceptor
Open accessAbstract
Sensing the force digitally: Our skin provides us with a flexible waterproof barrier, but it also contains a sensor array that feels the world around us. This array provides feedback and helps us to avoid a hot object or increase the strength of our grip on an object that may be slipping away. Tee et al. describe an approach to simulate the mechanoreceptors of human skin, using pressure-sensitive foils and printed ring oscillators (see the Perspective by Anikeeva and Koppes). The sensor successfully converted pressure into a digital response in a pressure range comparable to that found in a human grip. Science , this issue p. 313 ; see also p. 274
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The authors present DiTact, a skin-inspired artificial mechanoreceptor built from flexible printed organic circuits that converts pressure directly into digital frequency signals (0–200 Hz) with a sublinear response mimicking slow-adapting skin mechanoreceptors. The sensor output was used to optogenetically and electrically stimulate mouse cortical and hippocampal neurons in vitro, demonstrating a step toward neural-integrated touch feedback for prosthetic limbs.
Key findings
- The DiTact system transduces pressure into digital frequency signals directly, with an output frequency range of 0 to 200 Hz and a sublinear response to increasing force that mimics slow-adapting skin mechanoreceptors.
- In the on state (at 100 kPa), power dissipation of the prototype was 18.4 mW at 11 V and 2.0 mW at 6 V, which the authors state compares favorably to analog approaches.
- The engineered channelrhodopsin bC1C2(s/v) had larger photocurrents and faster off-kinetics than ChR2(HR) and ChETA(EA), and reliably evoked action potentials at frequencies up to 200 Hz for prolonged intervals; spike probability was 100% in bC1C2(s/v)-expressing neurons and decreased in ChETA(EA)-expressing neurons during prolonged stimulation (ChETA(EA), n = 16; bC1C2(s/v), n = 10).
- The DiTact output stimulated in vitro mouse somatosensory cortical neurons in accordance with applied pressure, with neurons firing in accordance with the stimulation pulse; the system was also coupled to an inorganic oscillator to electrically stimulate hippocampal neurons in a multielectrode array.
Methods
- The DiTact prototype comprises a three-inverter (three-stage) printed organic ring oscillator on a flexible plastic sheet, a piezoresistive pressure sensor made of a carbon nanotube composite dispersed in a polyurethane elastomer molded into pyramidal microstructures, and a voltage-divider configuration in which the sensor modulates the oscillator's supply voltage and thus its frequency.
- Optogenetic interfacing: the sensor output was conditioned via an edge detector to a 2-ms pulse triggering an LED (475 nm, 5 mW/mm²) to stimulate PV+ neurons in acute slices of mouse somatosensory cortex; whole-cell patch-clamp recordings compared ChETA(EA) and bC1C2(s/v) constructs, with error bars denoting SEM.
- Electrical interfacing: an inorganic oscillator was coupled to the pressure sensor and the resulting frequency signal was used to stimulate hippocampal neurons in a multielectrode array.
Limitations
- The paper states the system currently encodes static pressure stimuli only, and that implementing temporal adaptation to both static and nonstatic stimuli (e.g., increased firing rate for moving stimuli, decreased firing rate for constant stimuli) will be important to fully mimic biological mechanoreceptors.
- The paper notes that electrical stimulation is more applicable to conventional prosthetics, and that optogenetic stimulation was used as a reliable noncontact method to demonstrate feasibility of interfacing with biological neural circuits.
- The paper states the 11 V supply voltage was chosen to set the maximum frequency to 200 Hz, and that the supply voltage can be further reduced via reduction of the dielectric thickness (organic oscillators operating at 3 V have been demonstrated).
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In the paper
“with a sublinear response to increasing force stimuli”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When the sensor and oscillator were in series in a voltage divider, the frequency of the oscillator increased with pressure (Fig. 2G).”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“bC1C2(s/v) was able to reliably evoke action potentials at frequencies up to 200 Hz for more prolonged intervals (Fig. 3, A and B)”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The output of the sensors was further used to stimulate optogenetically engineered mouse somatosensory neurons of mouse cortex in vitro, achieving stimulated pulses in accordance with pressure levels.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The organic circuits emulate the response of slow-adapting tactile receptors by encoding static pressure stimuli into digital signals whose frequency varies with stimulation intensity (Fig. 1A).”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that ChETA activity was not well suited in cultured pyramidal neurons to mediate spikes for extended periods of time (Fig. 3A, fig. S10, and table S1).”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The oscillation frequency depends quadratically on the supply voltage (Fig. 2A) for the voltage range used in this work.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The neurons fired in accordance with the stimulation pulse, which was generated at frequencies determined by the pressure applied to the DiTact system (Fig. 3E).”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The output frequency ranges between 0 and 200 hertz”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“that mimics slow-adapting skin mechanoreceptors”
- Also stated in: § SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5 · plain
“Our DiTact sensors encode pressure stimulation magnitude with sublinear digital responses similar to human mechanoreceptors.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Rests on an assumption: The typical frequency range of biological mechanoreceptors is 0–200 Hz.
- Also stated in: § SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS · p. 5 · plain
- It may state two separate claims as one. 4
- Probably not a substantial claim. 11
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The resulting construct, termed bC1C2(s/v), had larger photocurrents than ChR2(HR) and ChETA(EA), as well as fast off-kinetics (fig. S11).”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the on state (at 100 kPa, with all voltage dropping across the oscillator), the power dissipation of the DiTact prototype was 18.4 m Wat 11 V and 2.0 m W at 6 V”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Kim and co-workers recently demonstrated silicon nanoribbon strain and pressure sensor arrays that output voltage signals and stretchable multielectrode arrays for nerve stimulation ( 12 ).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [12] 12. J. Kim et al ., Nat. Commun. 5 , 5747 (2014).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Mutations of channelrhodopsin such as ChR2-E123A [ChETA(EA)] accelerate channel opening and closure.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [23] 23. L. A. Gunaydin et al ., Nat. Neurosci. 13 , 387 - 392 (2010).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [24] 24. J. Mattis et al ., Nat. Methods 9 , 159 - 172 (2012).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To enable large-scale integration, it is advantageous for the sensors to directly produce digital signals with relevant frequencies.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This system can be potentially integrated over large areas as electronic skins for conventional neural prosthetics or optogenetic-based prosthetic interfaces.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the digital nature of the output could be advantageous in high-density prosthetic sensor systems, using strategies similar to code division multiple access (CDMA) that allow for greater bandwidths with fewer interconnections.”
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Flexible and stretchable tactile sensors have achieved a high level of sophistication using both organic ( 7 -10 ) and inorganic electronic materials ( 11 -13 ).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [7] 7. S. C. B. Mannsfeld et al ., Nat. Mater. 9 , 859 -864 (2010).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [8] 8. G. Schwartz et al ., Nat. Commun. 4 , 1859 (2013).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked yetcites [9] 9. M. Kaltenbrunner et al ., Nature 499 , 458 -463 (2013). source
- Not checked yetcites [10] 10. T. Sekitani et al ., Science 326 , 1516 -1519 (2009). source
- Not checked yetcites [11] 11. D.-H. Kim et al ., Science 333 , 838 -843 (2011). source
- Not matchedcites [12] 12. J. Kim et al ., Nat. Commun. 5 , 5747 (2014).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [13] 13. K. Takei et al ., Nat. Mater. 9 , 821 -826 (2010).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This transduction mechanism is inherently power-efficient and robust to noise, allowing for mechanical sensations to be transmitted over long distances, such as from extremities.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This work represents a step toward the design and use of large-area organic electronic skins with neural-integrated touch feedback for replacement limbs.”
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Previous reports on prosthetic skin systems have used a computer or microcontroller to convert the sensors ' analog signals into signals that are appropriate for stimulating neurons ( 4 , 12 ).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [4] 4. S. Raspopovic et al ., Sci. Transl. Med. 6 , 222ra19 (2014).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites [12] 12. J. Kim et al ., Nat. Commun. 5 , 5747 (2014).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the implementation of human mechanoreceptor-like sensing systems would be an important step toward highly functional prosthetics.”
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“which compares favorably to analog approaches.”
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper relies on this without support.
The typical frequency range of biological mechanoreceptors is 0–200 Hz.
“so as to match the typical frequency range of biological mechanoreceptors.”
“a range similar to that of slow-adapting mechanoreceptors”
The paper relies on this without support.
Human skin contains an enormously large density of sensors.
“an enormously large density of sensors as found in human skin”
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In the citing paper
“Significant transition from typical electronics to flexible electronics started with materials and mechanic and design strategies to match the epidermis.24,25”
From From flexible electronics technology in the era of IoT and artificial intelligence toward future implanted body sensor networks (2019) · cites this paper as [25]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Tee, B. C.-K., Chortos, A., Berndt, A., Nguyen, A. K., Tom, A., McGuire, A., Lin, Z. C., Tien, K., Bae, W.-G., Wang, H., Mei, P., Chou, H.-H., Cui, B., Deisseroth, K., Ng, T. N., & Bao, Z.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Palo Alto Research Center (US)
- Corresponding author
- Tee, Benjamin C.-K.
- Chortos, Alex
- Berndt, Andre
- Bao, Zhenan
- ORCID
- Venue
- Science
- Published
- 2015-10-16
- Volume
- 350
- Issue
- 6258
- Pages
- 313-316
- ISSN
- 0036-8075 (ISSN-L)
- 1095-9203
- OpenAlex
- W2212410734
- Semantic Scholar
- 65016a70846a1725c2b73bf6841061e09f301e80
- Cited by
- 882
- References
- 32
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 75 · 2021: 95 · 2020: 91 · 2019: 105 · 2018: 106 · 2017: 88 · 2016: 67 · 2015: 4
- FWCI
- 43.89
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Science (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Xerox Foundation
- gency for Science Technology and Research Singapore (A*STAR)
- National IT Industry Promotion Agency
- MSIP (Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning), Korea (NIPA-2014-H0201-14-1001)
- Samsung Electronics
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neuroscience and Neural Engineering
- Keywords
- mechanoreceptors, pressure sensing, optogenetics, somatosensory neurons, neurostimulation, electronic skin, artificial limbs
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cerebral Cortex, Transcutaneous Electric Nerve Stimulation, Hand, Humans, Mechanoreceptors, Pressure, Skin, Touch, Transistors, Electronic, Mice, Neural Prostheses, Optogenetics, In Vitro Techniques
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