Autonomous sweat extraction and analysis applied to cystic fibrosis and glucose monitoring using a fully integrated wearable platform
Open accessAbstract
Significance: The inherent inaccessibility of sweat in sedentary individuals in large volume (≥10 µL) for on-demand and in situ analysis has limited our ability to capitalize on this noninvasive and rich source of information. Through devising an electrochemically enhanced, programmable, and miniaturized iontophoresis interface, integrated in a wearable sensing platform, we demonstrated a method for periodic sweat extraction and in situ analysis. The system can be programmed to induce sweat with various secretion profiles, which in combination with the in situ analysis capability allow us to gain real-time insight into the sweat-secretion and gland physiology. To demonstrate the clinical value of our platform, human subject studies were performed in the context of the cystic fibrosis diagnosis and preliminary investigation of the blood/sweat glucose correlation.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
The paper presents a fully integrated wearable platform that uses an electrochemically enhanced iontophoresis interface to extract sweat on demand and analyze Na⁺, Cl⁻, and glucose in situ. It demonstrates elevated sweat electrolytes in cystic fibrosis patients and a preliminary blood/sweat glucose correlation after oral glucose intake.
Key findings
- In on-body testing, average sweat sodium and chloride levels at 25 min were 26.7 and 21.2 mM for six healthy subjects versus 82.3 and 95.7 mM for three CF patients, respectively; CF patients also showed lower sweat sodium than chloride, opposite to healthy subjects.
- For glucose, seven healthy subjects before and after 30 g oral glucose showed similar sweat and blood glucose patterns, with increases in both sweat and blood in six out of seven fasting subjects.
- The iontophoresis platform achieved sweat secretion rates above 100 nL/min/cm²; 10% acetylcholine produced a high short-lived rate of 354 nL/min/cm², while 10% methacholine gave rapid onset and sustained high secretion and was used for subsequent on-body experiments.
- Sensor characterizations showed near-Nernstian Na⁺ and Cl⁻ sensitivities of 63.2 and 55.1 mV per decade, a glucose sensitivity of 2.1 nA/μM, and biosensor sensitivity variations of <5% over 2 wk.
Methods
- The wearable system used a flexible PET electrode array with iontophoresis and sensing electrodes, agonist-loaded hydrogels, and a flexible printed circuit board built around an ATmega328P microcontroller with Bluetooth, programmable current delivery, and signal-conditioning circuits.
- Human subject studies included six healthy volunteers and three CF patients for sweat electrolyte testing, and seven healthy subjects for fasting and post-30 g oral glucose trials; on-body work was IRB-approved at UC Berkeley and Stanford.
- Sensor performance was characterized in 10–160 mM NaCl and 0–100 μM glucose solutions, and sweat-rate profiles were characterized using three cholinergic agonist hydrogels at two concentrations with a commercial Q-sweat sensor.
Limitations
- The paper states that the glucose work is preliminary, that the metabolic correlation between sweat and blood glucose has not been well studied, and that future work should integrate temperature, pH, and sweat-rate sensors to calibrate or normalize glucose measurements.
- The paper also states that future efforts should include a wider panel of biomarkers and peripheral electrochemical/physical sensors for large-scale clinical and physiological investigations.
- Evident from the text: the human studies are small (six healthy/three CF; seven glucose subjects), and no formal statistical comparisons or full correlation analyses are reported.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 6 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Findingnone given
The iontophoresis interface can be programmed to induce sweat periodically with various secretion profiles.
“This interface can be programmed to induce sweat periodically with various secretion profiles.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The challenge remains in devising an iontophoresis interface that can extract sufficient sweat for robust sensing without electrode corrosion and burning or discomfort in subjects.
- Findingnone given
The authors devised an electrochemically enhanced iontophoresis interface that can extract sufficient sweat volume for robust analysis without causing discomfort in patients.
“Here, we devised an electrochemically enhanced iontophoresis interface which can extract sufficient sweat volume for robust analysis without causing discomfort in patients.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The challenge remains in devising an iontophoresis interface that can extract sufficient sweat for robust sensing without electrode corrosion and burning or discomfort in subjects.
- Findingown data§ Autonomous sweat extraction and analysis applied to cystic fibrosis and glucose monitoring using a fully integrated wearable platform
With the platform, the authors detected elevated sweat electrolyte content in cystic fibrosis patients compared with healthy control subjects.
“With our platform, we detected the elevated sweat electrolyte content of cystic fibrosis patients compared with that of healthy control subjects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Acetylcholine hydrogel at 10% (wt/vol) produced a high sweat-rate response of 354 nL/min/cm2 with a short-lived effect.
“In particular, acetylcholine hydrogel presented a high sweat-rate response [354 nL/min/cm 2 for 10% (wt/vol) acetylcholine] with a short-lived effect.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
By modulating the duration of applied iontophoresis and the concentration of agonist, the active sweat-secretion window could be tuned from a few minutes to tens of minutes.
“By modulating the duration of the applied iontophoresis as well as the concentration of the agonist agent, we were able to tune the active sweat-secretion window from a few minutes (Fig. 3B, acetylcholine 1%, iontophoresis current: 1 mA for 10 s) to tens of minutes (Fig. 3C, acetylcholine 10%, iontophoresis current: 1 mA for 5 min).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- Findingreasoning
Through integration of sensing electrodes on the same substrate as the iontophoresis electrodes, induced sweat can be analyzed on-site immediately.
“Through integration of sensing electrodes on the same substrate as that of the iontophoresis electrodes, the induced sweat can be analyzed on-site immediately.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
In seven healthy subjects, sweat and blood glucose levels before and after 30 g oral glucose intake followed a similar pattern.
“Fig. 5 illustrates that the sweat and blood glucose levels of seven healthy subjects before and after glucose intake (30 g oral glucose) follow a similar pattern.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The Na+ and Cl- ion-selective sensors show near-Nernstian behavior with sensitivities of 63.2 and 55.1 mV per decade of concentration, respectively.
“Both ion-selective sensors show a near-Nernstian behavior with sensitivities of 63.2 and 55.1 mV per decade of concentration for Na + and Cl -sensors, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingnone given
The system implements a wirelessly programmable iontophoresis capability to induce sweat with different excretion rate profiles and at periodic time intervals.
“This system implements a wirelessly programmable iontophoresis capability to induce sweat with different excretion rate profiles and at periodic time intervals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Three typical Cl- sensors show nearly identical absolute potentials in 10-80 mM NaCl solutions with a variation of less than 1% in sensitivity.
“Three typical Cl -sensors show nearly identical absolute potentials in 10-80 mM NaCl solutions with a variation of <1% in sensitivity.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
The sensitivity of the glucose sensor is estimated as 2.1 nA/μM.
“The sensitivity of the glucose sensor is estimated as 2.1 nA/μM.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
Methacholine at 10% concentration gave the optimal combination of rapid onset, high secretory rate, and sustained secretion above the minimum recommended for sweat chloride analysis in CF (>100 nL/min/cm2).
“Specifically, methacholine at 10% concentration gave the optimal combination of a rapid onset of secretion with high secretory rate and sustained secretion at high rate that is also above the minimum recommended for sweat chloride analysis in CF (>100 nL/min/cm 2 ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The platform can generate iontophoretic currents with sawtooth and square wave profiles.
“Fig. 2 B and C illustrates our platform's capability to generate iontophoretic currents with a sawtooth wave profile (Fig. 2B) and a square wave profile (Fig. 2C).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingnone given
The sensors are capable of quantifying sweat Na+, Cl-, and glucose with high sensitivity in physiologically relevant ranges.
“The sensors are capable of quantifying sweat Na + , Cl -, and glucose, with high sensitivity in the physiologically relevant ranges of interest.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Findingown data
Oral glucose consumption in fasting subjects usually resulted in increased glucose levels in both sweat and blood, observed in six out of seven subjects.
“The off-body measurement results from the collected sweat sample induced by our wearable device indicate that oral glucose consumption in fasting subjects usually results in increase of glucose level in both sweat and blood (from six out of seven subjects).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
For all tested cholinergic agonist hydrogel formulations, sweat secretion initiated within a few minutes from the start of iontophoresis.
“As illustrated in Fig. 3A, for all of the formulations sweat secretion initiated in just a few minutes from the start of iontophoresis.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
By modulating the formulation of compounds loaded into the iontophoresis hydrogel, different patterns of sweat-secretion rate can be achieved.
“By modulating the formulation of the compounds that are loaded into the iontophoresis hydrogel, we can achieve different patterns of sweat-secretion rate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The sensor response stabilizes at about 20 min after iontophoresis, indicating that sufficient sweat has been generated.
“The response stabilizes at ∼20 min after iontophoresis, indicating that sufficient sweat has been generated.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The glucose sensor showed chronoamperometric responses to glucose solutions in the typical sweat concentration range from 0 to 100 μM.
“Fig. 2F shows the chronoamperometric responses of a glucose sensor to glucose solutions with a typical sweat concentration range from 0 to 100 μM.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
Optimization of sweat-stimulating drug concentration in the custom-developed hydrogels and careful design of the iontophoresis electrodes consistently achieved secretory rates in excess of 100 nL/min/cm2.
“Through optimization of sweat-stimulating drug concentration in the custom-developed hydrogels and careful design of the iontophoresis electrodes, we were able to consistently achieve secretory rates in excess of 100 nL/min/cm 2”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The Na+ and Cl- sensors produced representative voltage responses measured in 10-160 mM NaCl solutions.
“Fig. 2 D and E shows the representative voltage responses of the Na + and Cl -sensors, measured in 10-160 mM NaCl solutions, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The platform extracted sufficient amounts of sweat for reliable analysis.
“and extract sufficient amounts of sweat for reliable analysis”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingreasoning
The FPCB module consolidates integrated circuit chips and peripheral electronics to implement iontophoresis, signal processing, control, and wireless transmission, delivering a fully integrated programmable system.
“The FPCB module consolidates the required integrated circuit chips and peripheral electronics to implement iontophoresis, signal processing, control, and wireless transmission circuitries, thus delivering a fully integrated seamless and programmable system (Figs.S1-S3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The sensing electrodes of the platform can be modified differently according to specific applications.
“The sensing electrodes of our platform can be modified differently according to the specific applications.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Findingown data
The platform detected elevated sweat sodium and chloride ion content in cystic fibrosis patients.
“we used the platform to detect the elevated sweat sodium and chloride ions content in the CF patients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Elevated sweat sodium and chloride ion content is a diagnostic marker for cystic fibrosis.
- Findingcitation
Long-term stability studies indicate that the sensitivities of the biosensors are consistent over 2 weeks with sensitivity variations of less than 5%.
“Results of long-term stability studies of these electrochemical sensors indicate that the sensitivities of the biosensors are consistent over 2 wk with sensitivity variations of <5% (16).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [16] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
The developed platform makes the physiologically rich sweat sample accessible on demand for general population health monitoring.
“The developed platform makes the physiologically rich sweat sample accessible on demand for general population health monitoring.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Sweat is inaccessible in sedentary individuals in large volume (at least 10 μL) for on-demand and in situ analysis, limiting broad population monitoring.
- Premisecitation
Sweat extracted from iontophoresis has been shown to contain glucose levels that can accurately reflect blood glucose.
“Sweat extracted from iontophoresis has also been shown to contain glucose levels that can accurately reflect blood glucose (26).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [26] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Study design and conductreasoning
The iontophoresis circuit was implemented as a digitally programmable current source, ensuring that variation in skin condition such as thickness and conductivity does not affect iontophoresis performance.
“The iontophoresis circuit was implemented as a digitally programmable current source, ensuring that variation in the skin condition (such as thickness and conductivity) of individuals does not affect iontophoresis performance.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
The independent functionality of the individual sensors and the iontophoresis process is preserved by electrically decoupling the switchable sweat sensing and sweat induction modes of operation.
“The independent functionality of the individual sensors and the iontophoresis process is preserved through electrically decoupling the switchable sweat sensing and sweat induction modes of operation (Fig. 1C).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
Repeated sweat extraction and sensing is useful for monitoring the severity and recovery of CF patients.
“The repeated sweat extraction and sensing is also very useful for monitoring the severity and recovery of CF patients.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationown data
The device can potentially serve as a reliable tool for early screening of cystic fibrosis through on-demand sweat stimulation and simultaneous sodium and chloride sensing in sweat.
“Our device can potentially serve as a reliable tool for early screening of cystic fibrosis through on-demand sweat stimulation and simultaneous sodium and chloride sensing in sweat.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The paper demonstrated a fully integrated and autonomous platform that enables continuous and noninvasive monitoring of individuals.
“In conclusion, we have demonstrated a fully integrated and autonomous platform that enables continuous and noninvasive monitoring of individuals.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Study design and conductnone given
On-body measurement results were consistent with ex situ tests using freshly collected sweat samples.
“The on-body measurement results were also consistent with ex situ tests using freshly collected sweat samples.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
- May combine two claims. 15
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
May combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe authors integrated the iontophoresis capability into a fully integrated and autonomous wearable platform that can stimulate sweat secretion and measure glucose, Na+, and Cl- in situ and in real time.
“Accordingly, we integrated this capability to demonstrate a fully integrated and autonomous platform that can stimulate sweat secretion and measure analytes of interest in the sweat collected (e.g., glucose, Na + , and Cl -) in situ and in real time (Fig. 1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The challenge remains in devising an iontophoresis interface that can extract sufficient sweat for robust sensing without electrode corrosion and burning or discomfort in subjects.
May combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn on-body measurements, both Na+ and Cl- levels for healthy subjects fell below 20 mM while CF patients had higher sweat Na+ and Cl- levels above 60 mM.
“It can be clearly observed that both Na + and Cl -levels for the healthy subjects fall below 20 mM while the patient has higher sweat Na + and Cl -levels (>60 mM).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe programmability of the current source allows inducing different iontophoresis current profiles, which allows sweat stimulation with controlled intensity and duration of sweat rate.
“The programmability of the current source circuit allows for inducing different iontophoresis current profiles, which in turn allows for sweat stimulation with controlled intensity and duration of sweat rate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataIn situ sweat analysis on six healthy volunteers and three CF patients showed average sodium and chloride levels at 25 min of 26.7 and 21.2 mM for healthy subjects, and 82.3 and 95.7 mM for CF patients, respectively.
“As displayed in Fig. 4C, the average sodium and chloride levels (based on the sensor readings at 25 min) for healthy subjects are 26.7 and 21.2 mM, respectively, while the average sodium and chloride levels (based on the sensor readings at 25 min) for CF patient subjects are 82.3 and 95.7 mM, respectively.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe iontophoresis circuit delivers a current proportional to the microcontroller DAC output, and this current is independent of load sizes from 5 to 20 kΩ.
“The circuit delivers a current proportional to the output voltage of the microcontroller's DAC port, and this current is independent of load sizes ranging from 5 to 20 kΩ (the typical skin impedance in our context is ∼10 kΩ).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataPilocarpine and methacholine-based hydrogels provided long duration of secretion beyond the 60-min characterization window, with about half of the secretion period spent at about the peak rate.
“Furthermore, as shown in Fig. 3A, pilocarpine and methacholinebased hydrogels provide long duration of secretion beyond the 60-min characterization window, where about half of the secretion period was spent at about the peak rate.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe platform extracts sweat on demand or periodically and performs sweat analysis in situ.
“This platform extracts sweat (at a high secretion rate) on demand or periodically and performs sweat analysis in situ.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe mobile application has a user-friendly interface for programming the mode of operation and displaying and sharing iontophoresis and sweat analysis data.
“The mobile application has a user-friendly interface for programming the mode of operation as well as displaying and sharing the iontophoresis and sweat analysis data through email, short message service, and cloud servers (Fig. S4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingreasoningThe sweat extraction did not cause skin damage or discomfort in the subjects.
“without causing skin damage or discomfort in the subjects.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe platform can be used for a wide range of applications in personalized medicine, such as in-home continuous patient monitoring and enabling further clinical investigations including diabetes and prediabetes monitoring.
“As a result, it can be used for a wide range of applications in personalized medicine such as in-home continuous patient monitoring in response to potentially novel CF modulating drugs and enabling further clinical investigations including diabetes and prediabetes monitoring in a practical and noninvasive modality.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ Autonomous sweat extraction and analysis applied to cystic fibrosis and glucose monitoring using a fully integrated wearable platformIontophoresis is currently a widely used method to stimulate local sweat secretion at a selected site.
“Iontophoresis is currently a widely used method to stimulate local sweat secretion at a selected site (21).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).
Interpretationreasoning§ Autonomous sweat extraction and analysis applied to cystic fibrosis and glucose monitoring using a fully integrated wearable platformThe authors' solution opens the possibility for a broad range of noninvasive diagnostic and general population health monitoring applications.
“Our solution opens the possibility for a broad range of noninvasive diagnostic and general population health monitoring applications.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: Sweat is inaccessible in sedentary individuals in large volume (at least 10 μL) for on-demand and in situ analysis, limiting broad population monitoring.
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationA sweat chloride level of at least 60 mM is indicative of a high likelihood of CF, whereas in subjects with sweat chloride below 30 mM the disease is unlikely.
“A sweat chloride level of ≥60 mM is indicative of a high likelihood of CF, whereas in subjects with sweat chloride <30 mM the disease is unlikely (21).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe integrated platform can be used both as a diagnostic and clinical investigation tool.
“This integrated platform can be used both as a diagnostic and clinical investigation tool.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenAll subjects gave written, informed consent before participation in the study.
“All subjects gave written, informed consent before participation in the study.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenThe on-body evaluation of the wearable platform was performed in compliance with protocols approved by the Institutional Review Board at University of California, Berkeley and the Institutional Review Board at Stanford University.
“The on-body evaluation of the wearable platform was performed in compliance with the protocols that were approved by the Institutional Review Board at University of California, Berkeley (2015-05-7578) and the Institutional Review Board at Stanford University (no.31310).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe Cl-based sweat test and genetic analysis are not always sufficient for some CF patients with rare mutations, whereas the ratio of sweat sodium and chloride levels can aid CF diagnosis.
“It is also known that the Cl --based sweat test and genetic analysis are not always sufficient for some CF patients with rare mutations whereas the ratio of the sweat sodium and chloride levels can aid the CF diagnosis (27).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [27] source
Not checked in the free run.
Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
Premisecitation§ Autonomous sweat extraction and analysis applied to cystic fibrosis and glucose monitoring using a fully integrated wearable platformA previously demonstrated fully integrated wearable sensing system allows accurate measurement of sweat analytes through signal processing and calibration.
“We recently demonstrated a fully integrated wearable sensing system for real-time monitoring of multiple analytes in human perspiration during physical exercise which allows accurate measurement of sweat analytes through signal processing and calibration (16).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [16] source
Not checked in the free run.
May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThe system can be programmed to induce sweat with various secretion profiles, which in combination with in situ analysis allows real-time insight into sweat-secretion and gland physiology.
“The system can be programmed to induce sweat with various secretion profiles, which in combination with the in situ analysis capability allow us to gain real-time insight into the sweat-secretion and gland physiology.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationreasoning§ Autonomous sweat extraction and analysis applied to cystic fibrosis and glucose monitoring using a fully integrated wearable platformThe interface can be programmed to induce sweat with various secretion profiles for real-time analysis, a capability that can be exploited to advance knowledge of sweat gland physiology and the secretion process.
“This interface can be programmed to induce sweat with various secretion profiles for real-time analysis, a capability which can be exploited to advance our knowledge of the sweat gland physiology and the secretion process.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).
Study design and conductnone givenThe sweat induction circuit includes a protection circuit that sets an upper limit on iontophoresis current as a safety mechanism to avoid overheating and burning the skin.
“The sweat induction circuit consists of a programmable current source for iontophoresis current delivery and a protection circuit that sets an upper limit on the iontophoresis current as a safety mechanism to avoid overheating and burning the skin.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningIncorporation of simultaneous in situ analysis functionality allowed for significant reduction of sweat sample degradation, evaporation, or contamination.
“Additionally, incorporation of simultaneous in situ analysis functionality inherently allowed for significant reduction of the sweat sample degradation, evaporation, or contamination.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
Sweat is inaccessible in sedentary individuals in large volume (at least 10 μL) for on-demand and in situ analysis, limiting broad population monitoring.
“The inherent inaccessibility of sweat in sedentary individuals in large volume (≥10 μL) for on-demand and in situ analysis has limited our ability to capitalize on this noninvasive and rich source of information.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The conventional iontophoresis procedure involves separate stimulation, collection, and analysis steps, requiring extensive manual sample handling and failing to provide real-time insight into the secretion process.
“The conventional procedure involves stimulation, collection, and analysis all in separate steps, which not only requires extensive manual sample handling steps, but also fails to provide real-time insight into the secretion process.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The metabolic correlation between sweat glucose and blood glucose has not been well studied.
“Although there is literature reporting that sweat glucose level is related with blood glucose level (26), their metabolic correlation has not been well studied.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The challenge remains in devising an iontophoresis interface that can extract sufficient sweat for robust sensing without electrode corrosion and burning or discomfort in subjects.
“The challenge remains in devising an iontophoresis interface that can extract sufficient amount of sweat for robust sensing, without electrode corrosion and burning/causing discomfort in subjects.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Elevated sweat sodium and chloride ion content is a diagnostic marker for cystic fibrosis.
“To illustrate the value of our solution as a diagnostic tool, we used the platform to detect the elevated sweat sodium and chloride ions content in the CF patients.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Preliminary or small-scale correlation studies have shown promising applications for other analytes such as metabolites and certain neuroimmune biomarkers present in sweat, including a recent work showing exercise sweat glucose of three healthy subjects roughly tracks their blood glucose, making a preliminary case for semiquantitative glucose prediction.
“Preliminary or small-scale correlation studies have shown promising applications for other analytes such as metabolites and certain neuroimmune biomarkers present in sweat (3, 27–29, 36), including a recent work that shows how exercise sweat glucose of three healthy subjects roughly tracks their blood glucose, making a preliminary case for semiquantitative glucose prediction (29).”
From Regional and correlative sweat analysis using high-throughput microfluidic sensing patches toward decoding sweat (2019) · cites this paper as [27]
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSweat behaviors of only a few analytes, including ethanol and chloride, have been extensively investigated and related to blood concentrations or health status.
“Sweat behaviors of only a few analytes, including ethanol and chloride, have been extensively investigated and related to blood concentrations or health status (6, 8, 27, 35).”
From Regional and correlative sweat analysis using high-throughput microfluidic sensing patches toward decoding sweat (2019) · cites this paper as [27]
The Significance section (page not provided) describes sweat chloride testing as an established diagnostic measure for cystic fibrosis and reports higher sweat chloride in patients than in healthy subjects. The References list names studies relating sweat ethanol to blood alcohol, but this paper does not establish the broader claim that only a few analytes have been extensively investigated. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMost wearable sweat sensors are unable to draw low volumes of resting sweat rapidly into the device, limiting real-time assessment.
“They are unable to draw low volumes of resting sweat rapidly into the device, limiting real-time assessment.”
From A wearable patch for continuous analysis of thermoregulatory sweat at rest (2021) · cites this paper as [14]
The paper’s introduction (page not available in our copy) says that obtaining enough sweat from sedentary individuals for on-demand analysis is difficult, and that conventional collection and analysis do not provide real-time insight. It does not establish that most wearable sweat sensors cannot rapidly draw low volumes of resting sweat into a device; it describes a need for larger volumes (≥10 μL) and sufficient delivery to the sensor surface. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredSweat pH could potentially reflect acid-base disorders, chloride levels are relevant to testing for cystic fibrosis and potentially for hydration status and electrolyte stores, and levodopa testing through sweat could be used toward precision medicine for Parkinson's patients.
“Sweat pH could potentially reflect acid–base disorders, chloride levels are relevant to testing for cystic fibrosis and potentially for hydration status and electrolyte stores, and levodopa testing through sweat could be used toward precision medicine for Parkinson’s patients14,27,28.”
From A wearable patch for continuous analysis of thermoregulatory sweat at rest (2021) · cites this paper as [14]
Split into 3 atoms — 0 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredAll sensors show high sensitivity within the physiological range, with linear calibration curves, reproducibility, stability, and bending tests.
“All sensors show high sensitivity within the physiological range, with linear calibration curves shown in Supplementary Fig. 9 as well as reproducibility, stability, and bending tests shown in Supplementary Fig. 10 and Supplementary Fig. 1114,27,28.”
From A wearable patch for continuous analysis of thermoregulatory sweat at rest (2021) · cites this paper as [14]
The sensor-characterization passage (Significance; page not provided) reports physiologically relevant concentration ranges, sensor sensitivities, calibration curves in Fig. S5, and chloride-sensor repeatability in Fig. S7. It also mentions stability results, but our copy does not report bending tests or place these results in Supplementary Figs. 9–11; it does not establish that every sensor underwent every listed test. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Chemically induced sweat is more useful for medical diagnostics in sedentary conditions than exercise sweat.
“While understanding the composition of exercise sweat is important for athletic and physiology applications, chemically induced sweat is more useful for medical diagnostics in sedentary conditions (27).”
From Regional and correlative sweat analysis using high-throughput microfluidic sensing patches toward decoding sweat (2019) · cites this paper as [27]
Most wearable sweat sensors have focused on exercise, thermal, or chemically stimulated sweat produced at rates of 10's or 100's of nL min−1 cm−2 or higher.
“For this reason, most wearable sweat sensors have focused on exercise, thermal, or chemically stimulated sweat produced at rates of 10’s or 100’s of nL min−1 cm−2 or higher10–23.”
From A wearable patch for continuous analysis of thermoregulatory sweat at rest (2021) · cites this paper as [14]
Sweat is considered an ideal biofluid for detecting biomolecules in wearable Point of Use devices because it is much easier to collect for testing than other biofluids, such as blood, which require invasive methods.
“Sweat is considered an ideal biofluid for detecting biomolecules in wearable Point of Use devices because it is much easier to collect for testing than other biofluids, such as blood, which require invasive methods [128].”
From The emergence of AI-based wearable sensors for digital health technology: a review (2023) · cites this paper as [128]
Iontophoresis is a useful method to obtain sufficient sweat when sweat amount may not meet monitoring needs.
“In such circumstances, iontophoresis, whereby sweat glands are stimulated through delivery of an agonist using a low electrical current, is an useful method to obtain sufficient sweat 60,61 .”
From A review of sampling, energy supply and intelligent monitoring for long-term sweat sensors (2022) · cites this paper as [60]
The duration of sweat generation in a patch-type iontophoretic sweat sensor was limited to 60 min, with varying rates over that time, which could hinder continuous monitoring applications.
“However, the duration of sweat generation was limited to 60 min, with varying rates over that time, which could hinder continuous monitoring applications.”
From Wearable biosensors for healthcare monitoring (2019) · cites this paper as [41]
Various materials have been used as working electrodes, such as noble metals (Au and Ag), metallic oxides, graphene, and carbon black.
“Various materials have been used as working electrodes, such as noble metal (Au and Ag) (20–22), metallic oxides (23, 24), graphene (25, 26), and carbon black (27).”
From Integrated textile sensor patch for real-time and multiplex sweat analysis (2019) · cites this paper as [20]
The wristband sweat sensor was recently tested for cystic fibrosis diagnosis and preliminary investigation of the blood/sweat glucose correlation.
“This device was recently tested for cystic fibrosis diagnosis and preliminary investigation of the blood/sweat glucose correlation [161].”
From Wearables and the Medical Revolution (2018) · cites this paper as [161]
Cites
Fully integrated wearable sensor arrays for multiplexed in situ perspiration analysis
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“We recently demonstrated a fully integrated wearable sensing system for real-time monitoring of multiple analytes in human perspiration during physical exercise which allows accurate measurement of sweat analytes through signal processing and calibration (16).”
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Wearable sensors for monitoring the internal and external workload of the athlete
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An autonomous wearable biosensor powered by a perovskite solar cell
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Emaminejad, S., Gao, W., Wu, E., Davies, Z. A., Yin Yin Nyein, H., Challa, S., Ryan, S. P., Fahad, H. M., Chen, K., Shahpar, Z., Talebi, S., Milla, C., Javey, A., & Davis, R. W.
- Affiliations
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (US)
- University of California, Berkeley (US)
- Stanford Medicine (US)
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720;
- Stanford University (US)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2017-04-17
- Volume
- 114
- Issue
- 18
- Pages
- 4625-4630
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC5422810
- OpenAlex
- W2607347870
- Semantic Scholar
- 33ec820767aad6915dd5361387dc8f8191c9a9f2
- Cited by
- 839
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 71 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 107 · 2023: 106 · 2022: 99 · 2021: 113 · 2020: 97 · 2019: 96 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 8
- FWCI
- 30.79
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- CaltechAUTHORS (California Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion)
- Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
- eScholarship (California Digital Library) (submittedVersion)
- OSTI OAI (U.S. Department of Energy Office of Scientific and Technical Information) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (HG000205)
- National Science Foundation (NASCENT)
- U.S. Department of Energy (DE-AC02-05CH11231)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electrochemical sensors and biosensors
- Physical Sciences › Chemical Engineering › Bioengineering › Analytical Chemistry and Sensors
- Keywords
- sweat analysis, iontophoresis, wearable biosensors, cystic fibrosis, blood glucose monitoring, sweat electrolytes, non-invasive diagnosis, continuous health monitoring
- MeSH terms
- Wearable Electronic Devices, Cystic Fibrosis, Glucose, Humans, Iontophoresis, Monitoring, Physiologic, Sweat
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