Cited by 983Cognitive Abilities and TestingCognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skillsDevelopmental and Educational Neuropsychology

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 231 of the 232 references it cites were found in a registry or an index, and 1 are not checked yet; 11 of the 73 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence From a Meta-Analytic Review

Open access

Melby-Lervåg, Monica, Redick, Thomas S., Hulme, Charles·2016·Perspectives on Psychological Science

DOI 10.1177/1745691616635612PMC PMC4968033

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Abstract

It has been claimed that working memory training programs produce diverse beneficial effects. This article presents a meta-analysis of working memory training studies (with a pretest-posttest design and a control group) that have examined transfer to other measures (nonverbal ability, verbal ability, word decoding, reading comprehension, or arithmetic; 87 publications with 145 experimental comparisons). Immediately following training there were reliable improvements on measures of intermediate transfer (verbal and visuospatial working memory). For measures of far transfer (nonverbal ability, verbal ability, word decoding, reading comprehension, arithmetic) there was no convincing evidence of any reliable improvements when working memory training was compared with a treated control condition. Furthermore, mediation analyses indicated that across studies, the degree of improvement on working memory measures was not related to the magnitude of far-transfer effects found. Finally, analysis of publication bias shows that there is no evidential value from the studies of working memory training using treated controls. The authors conclude that working memory training programs appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not generalize to measures of “real-world” cognitive skills. These results seriously question the practical and theoretical importance of current computerized working memory programs as methods of training working memory skills.

Verified 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/1745691616635612

Cites

231 of 232 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

3 tests recomputed · 0 with the reported and recomputed p on opposite sides of .05

Claims the paper makes

11 of 73 cited sources checked · 6 supported · 1 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“Unfortunately, once again this effect seems to be driven by three comparisons across two studies (Nussbaumer et al., 2013; Alloway et al., 2013) where the control group shows decreases in performance between pretest and posttest.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Follow-up Effects from Working Memory Training on Far Transfer Measures
What the sources say
- Disputed
  The Discussion (page unavailable) says the low-WM-load group was the active control group and that its performance increased from pretest to posttest, rather than decreased. The Results (page unavailable) also report no differential transfer in mathematical problem-solving tasks. This paper does not establish the citing sentence’s count of three comparisons across two studies. (LLM, conf=0.87)
  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
  cites Nussbaumer et al., 2013Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Alloway et al., 2013 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedn = 2
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“These crossover interactions thus artificially produced large effect sizes (Boot, Blakely, & Simons, 2011; Fischer-Baum, 2015; Redick, 2015; Redick & Webster, 2014), and are responsible for the significant effect of N-back training and transfer to nonverbal ability.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Immediate Effects of Working Memory Training on Far Transfer Measures
What the sources say
- Partly supported
  In 'Inadequate Baseline for Transfer Effects' (page unavailable), the paper says a control group’s lack of expected test–retest improvement can make a training benefit appear greater. That supports the general concern about inflated apparent effects, but the passage does not identify crossover interactions, quantify large effect sizes, or link them to N-back training and transfer to nonverbal ability. (LLM, conf=0.82)
  cites Boot, Blakely, & Simons, 2011 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Fischer-Baum, 2015
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Redick, 2015 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“After only the most problematic study has been removed from the analysis (Schweizer et al., 2011), the effects of N-back training on nonverbal ability with treated controls is negligible (g = 0.10).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Immediate Effects of Working Memory Training on Far Transfer Measures
What the sources say
- Supported
  The citation identifies the study removed from the citing authors’ analysis; it does not attribute the recalculated g = 0.10 to Schweizer et al. The Methods (Participants and Procedures; Materials) describe n-back training, an actively trained control group, and Raven’s Progressive Matrices as a nonverbal transfer measure. The source therefore fits the study being identified. (LLM, conf=0.90)
  cites Schweizer et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Of these, 6 comparisons across 4 studies (Jaeggi et al 2014; Lee, 2014; Redick & Wiemers, 2015; Shiran & Breznitz, 2011) show an odd pattern with the control group showing decreases in reading comprehension from pretest-posttest”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Immediate Effects of Working Memory Training on Far Transfer Measures
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Jaeggi et al 2014 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lee, 2014
- Partly supported
  The Criteria for Evaluating Educationally-Relevant Working Memory Training Research section says that control groups sometimes decline from pretest to posttest. But our copy does not report six reading-comprehension comparisons across four studies; the specific control-group decreases described in the Alloway et al. (2013) section concern spelling and math. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)
  cites Redick & Wiemers, 2015 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 4
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For intermediate and near transfer effects to verbal and visuo-spatial working memory tasks, the development of task- or stimulus-specific strategies is likely to explain a large amount of the pretest-to-posttest improvement (Gibson et al., 2014; Dunning & Holmes, 2014; Sprenger et al., 2013).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gibson et al., 2014 source
- Partly supported
  The Discussion reports that strategy use and performance improved together on untrained visuospatial short-term memory and verbal working memory tasks that directly overlapped with training, and proposes task-specific strategies as an explanation. It does not establish how much of the improvement strategies explain, and the Results do not show a comparable strategy increase for visuospatial working memory in the adaptive-training group. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
  cites Dunning & Holmes, 2014 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Sprenger et al., 2013 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“In addition, it is important to remember that ‘the variance of the score gains can have a radically different composition than the variance of the scores themselves’ (Hayes, Petrov, & Sederberg, 2015, p. 9).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Supported
  The General Discussion states the cited sentence almost verbatim. It explains that components contributing to scores across individuals can cancel out when pretest scores are subtracted from posttest scores, leaving score gains with a different variance composition. (LLM, conf=0.95)
  cites Hayes, Petrov, & Sederberg, 2015 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Given the tendency for small sample sizes to produce inflated effect size estimates (Button et al., 2013), future studies should include larger samples in order to produce more precise effect size estimates.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Methodological Issues in the Studies of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results section states that small studies are particularly susceptible to inflated effect size estimates. The Abstract explains that this inflation is worst for small, low-powered studies when findings are selected by a discovery threshold. (LLM, conf=0.94)
  cites Button et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“For example, there is no evidence that working memory training reduces symptoms in individuals with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; Cortese et al., 2015; Rapport, Orban, Kofler, & Friedman, 2013).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Practical Implications
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results report no effects of working memory training specifically on ADHD symptoms in the children with ADHD studied. The Discussion likewise says its effects on ADHD symptoms were negligible even with ratings from assessors closest to treatment. (LLM, conf=0.93)
  cites Cortese et al., 2015 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Rapport, Orban, Kofler, & Friedman, 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Unsworth et al. (2014) demonstrated that all three sources of variance (primary memory, secondary memory, attention control) were necessary to fully mediate the relationship between working memory capacity and fluid intelligence.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Discussion reports that capacity, attention control, and secondary memory each uniquely related to fluid intelligence and jointly, completely mediated its relationship with working memory. The paper describes primary memory as including the capacity to maintain items, so the citing sentence’s terminology is a reasonable paraphrase. (LLM, conf=0.90)
  cites Unsworth et al., 2014 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“For studies in which untreated controls are used (and even in studies with treated controls where the subjects have different expectancies than the training group about the intervention) motivation could partially explain differences, given previous research showing effects of motivation on intelligence tests (Duckworth, Quinn, Lynam, Loeber, & Stouthmaer-Loeber, 2011).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Supported
  Split into 2 atoms — 2 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
  cites Duckworth, Quinn, Lynam, Loeber, & Stouthmaer-Loeber, 2011 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes

Show all 88 claims

It may state two separate claims as one. 41
Probably not a substantial claim. 44

The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Several studies have found that intervention studies are particularly vulnerable to publication bias and for lacking replicability (Cuijpers et al., 2010; Scherer et al., 2007).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Current Review
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cuijpers et al., 2010 source
- Partly supported
  The discussion passage on randomized or controlled trials reports that positive results were associated with full publication and warns reviewers of interventions about publication bias (page not provided). It does not address replicability or establish that intervention studies are more vulnerable to publication bias than other study designs. (LLM, conf=0.88)
  cites Scherer et al., 2007 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The largest effect size for working memory training on nonverbal ability came from the earliest study (d = 2.18; Klingberg et al., 2002), which included only 7 subjects in each of the training and control groups.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Methodological Issues in the Studies of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Klingberg et al., 2002 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 7
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Since previous meta-analyses have found a large difference between studies using treated and untreated controls (Dougherty et al., 2015; Lilienfeld et al. 2014; Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013), these two designs were analyzed separately.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Meta-Analytic Procedure and Analysis
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Dougherty et al., 2015
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lilienfeld et al. 2014 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“For example, according to one theory variations in fluid intelligence reflect to a large degree variations in working memory capacity (Engle, 2002; but see Heitz et al., 2006).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Foundation of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Engle, 2002 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
In the paper
“Previous reviews seem to show conflicting findings for two main reasons: First, some methodological decisions may have led to biased conclusions (see Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2015). Secondly, typically previous reviews have examined subsets of studies restricted to specific types of working memory training, age groups, or participant status.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Prior Reviews of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2015 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The idea that working memory limitations may place constraints on diverse higher cognitive functions leads directly to the suggestion that if working memory capacity can be increased by training, this should produce transfer effects to diverse untrained tasks that depend on such a capacity (Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2010).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Foundation of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“However, there are some obvious weaknesses in this study: the group sizes (7 children per group) are tiny – this study is, like many other studies in this area, severely underpowered.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Foundation of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Klingberg et al. (2002) source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 7
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“We calculated effect sizes by dividing the differences in gain between pre- and post-test in the treatment and the control group by the pooled standard deviation for each group at pretest; this method of effect size calculation for pretest-posttest designs is recommended (Morris, 2008).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Meta-Analytic Procedure and Analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Morris, 2008 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The authors conclude that working memory training programs appear to produce short-term, specific training effects that do not generalize to measures of “real-world”cognitive skills.”
- Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
  “Our conclusion is that there is no good evidence that working memory training improves intelligence test scores or other measures of “real-world”cognitive skills.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The idea that working memory limitations may place constraints on diverse higher cognitive functions leads directly to the suggestion that if working memory capacity can be increased by training, this should produce transfer effects to diverse untrained tasks that depend on such a capacity (Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2010).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Foundation of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Shipstead, Redick, & Engle, 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“This is because effects of working memory training on fluid intelligence or academic attainment are typically seen as being mediated by (i.e. dependent upon) increases in working memory capacity (Harrison et al., 2013; Lange & Süß, 2015; Tidwell et al., 2014; von Bastian & Oberauer, 2014).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Current Review
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harrison et al., 2013 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lange & Süß, 2015 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tidwell et al., 2014 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Others have argued that limitations in working memory capacity may be responsible for impairments in the development of reading (Swanson, 2006), language (Archibald & Gathercole, 2006), and mathematical skills (Passolunghi, 2006).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Foundation of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Swanson, 2006
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Archibald & Gathercole, 2006 source
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Passolunghi, 2006
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true.
In the paper
“Violating the assumption of independence by computing an overall effect size based on information from the same sample more than once can lead to biased estimates (Borenstein et al. 2007).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Search, Inclusion Criteria and Coding
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Borenstein et al. 2007
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“We adjusted the effect size for small samples using Hedges g (Hedges & Olkin, 1985).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Meta-Analytic Procedure and Analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges & Olkin, 1985 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Here, we will pay particular attention to this, both by retrieving as much grey literature as possible (see Rothstein, Sutton & Borenstein, 2005) and by estimating the impact of publication bias using statistical procedures.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Current Review
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Rothstein, Sutton & Borenstein, 2005
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“P-curve is a recently developed method that deals with the weaknesses in the funnel plot/trim- and-fill analysis (Simonsohn, Nelson & Simmons, 2014).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Meta-Analytic Procedure and Analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Simonsohn, Nelson & Simmons, 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A p-curve plots the distribution of statistically significant p values (p < 0.05) in published studies, and the shape of the p-curve is a function only of the effect size and sample size, when the power level is taken into account.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Meta-Analytic Procedure and Analysis
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Simonsohn, Nelson & Simmons, 2014 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In line with recommendations for meta-analyses, we made special efforts to retrieve studies from the grey literature and used this as a moderator when possible (Higgins & Green, 2011).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Method > Meta-Analytic Procedure and Analysis
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Higgins & Green, 2011
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In any case, these effect sizes are arguably too small to be relevant to educational practice (Promising Practices Network [PPN], 2007; What Works Clearinghouse, 2007; Cooper, 2008).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Results > Immediate Effects of Working Memory Training on Far Transfer Measures
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Promising Practices Network [PPN], 2007
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites What Works Clearinghouse, 2007
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cooper, 2008 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Further, in comparison to Melby-Lervåg and Hulme (2013) and Schwaighofer et al. (2015), we will also provide a more fine-grained analysis of working memory measures and publication bias.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Current Review
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Melby-Lervåg and Hulme (2013) source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Schwaighofer et al. (2015) source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Traditionally, it has been argued that random allocation of participants to conditions is the surest way of ensuring that the results of an intervention reflect a causal effect (Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > The Current Review
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Shadish, Cook, & Campbell, 2002
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“As noted elsewhere (Logie, 2012), high- and low-ability individuals performing the same complex task may strategically use their cognitive resources differently so that repeatedly practicing the same task over sessions may not address the same cognitive processes to the same degree across all people.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Logie, 2012 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Our meta-analysis included an impressive number of studies from the burgeoning working memory training literature, but the pattern of results is consistent with an earlier review (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, whether an active control group uses a non-adaptive training regime or a different, adaptive activity may have effects (Weicker et al., 2015).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Methodological Issues in the Studies of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Weicker et al., 2015
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Simmons et al. (2011) recommend that at a minimum, 20 subjects/observations need to be present in each cell (in this case, group).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Methodological Issues in the Studies of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Simmons et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 20
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“In this vein, there is good evidence that difficulties with word reading and problems with reading and language comprehension can be improved by intensive, targeted educational interventions (see Hulme & Melby-Lervåg, 2015).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Conclusions
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hulme & Melby-Lervåg, 2015 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This result may reflect the fact that individual differences in working memory capacity are multi-faceted (Gibson & Gondoli, 2012, 2013).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Theoretical Implications
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Gibson & Gondoli, 2012, 2013
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Kraemer, Gardner, Brooks, and Yesavage (1998) have argued forcefully that meta-analyses should exclude studies that are underpowered, as this will go a long way to removing the problem of misleading conclusions arising from the file drawer problem.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Methodological Issues in the Studies of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kraemer, Gardner, Brooks, and Yesavage, 1998 source
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This is termed by Bogg and Lasecki (2014) a “winner's curse” because such very large effect sizes are unlikely to be true.”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Methodological Issues in the Studies of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Bogg and Lasecki, 2014
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“It should also be noted that the type of active control group used is also potentially important (see Mohr et al., 2009).”
§ Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence from a Meta-Analytic Review > Discussion > Methodological Issues in the Studies of Working Memory Training
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mohr et al., 2009 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

77 of 77

The authors state this as an assumption.
The multiple comparisons from the same control group included in one analysis have zero correlation between their outcomes.
“we choose to include these studies in the analyses assuming zero correlation between the outcomes.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Individuals with cognitive impairments may benefit more from working memory training.
“Under the assumption that individuals who have cognitive impairments (e.g., ADHD, dyslexia, low working memory, or other neuropsychological disorders) may be more receptive to benefits from working memory training”

2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics that don’t add up

Each reported p-value recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom.

Inconsistent p-value: Q(1) = 13.70, p = .0001
Minor
The paper reports p = .0001 here; recomputing from the test statistic and its degrees of freedom gives p < .001. The check cannot tell whether the statistic or the p-value is the misprint.
Reported p = .0001 · recomputed p < .001

1 of 1

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

Doesn’t add upQ(1) = 13.7reported p = .0001 · recomputed p < .001
“Q(1) = 13.70, p = .0001”
ConsistentQ(1) = 6.09reported p = .01 · recomputed p = .014
“Q (1) = 6.09, p = .01”
ConsistentQ(1) = 4.52reported p = .03 · recomputed p = .034
“Q(1) = 4.52, p = .03”

3 of 3

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

Control-group coefficient has the opposite sign from the reported effect
Minor
The regression codes treated controls as 1 and untreated controls as 0, so a positive coefficient indicates larger nonverbal-ability gains with treated controls. The paper instead says treated controls showed smaller gains. The second regression also reports a positive coefficient for control type.

1 of 1

Cited works that were retracted

Works this paper cites that were later retracted, from the retraction notices publishers deposit. Major when the notice came out before this paper was published.

Cites a retracted work: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02172.x
Major
The cited work was retracted on 2011-03-31 (notice 10.1177/0956797611404902), before this paper was published (2016-07). Its authors could have known.
Cited work 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02172.x · retracted 2011-03-31 · notice 10.1177/0956797611404902 · this paper published 2016-07
Cites a retracted work: 10.1073/pnas.1018601108
Info
The cited work was retracted on 2025-05-01 (notice 10.1073/pnas.2508040122), not before this paper was published (2016-07).
Cited work 10.1073/pnas.1018601108 · retracted 2025-05-01 · notice 10.1073/pnas.2508040122 · this paper published 2016-07

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2 retracted

RETRACTED: Role of test motivation in intelligence testing
Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., Lynam, D. R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1018601108 · Cited by 344
Retracted
Gaining Control: Training Executive Function and Far Transfer of the Ability to Resolve Interference [retracted]
Persson, J., & Reuter‐Lorenz, P. A. (2008) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02172.x · Cited by 109
Retracted
Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions: Cochrane Book Series
(2008) · doi:10.1002/9780470712184 · Cited by 25,048
Introduction to Meta‐Analysis
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009) · doi:10.1002/9780470743386 · Cited by 14,225
Trim and Fill: A Simple Funnel‐Plot–Based Method of Testing and Adjusting for Publication Bias in Meta‐Analysis
Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000) · Biometrics · doi:10.1111/j.0006-341x.2000.00455.x · Cited by 14,099
Untitled work
(2002) · Cited by 13,211
Book Reviews: Statistical Methods for Meta-Analysis Larry V. Hedges and Ingram Olkin New York: Academic Press, 1985. xxii + 369 pp
Wasserman, S. S., Hedges, L. V., & Olkin, I. (1988) · Journal of Educational Statistics · doi:10.2307/1164953 · Cited by 10,377
Introduction to Meta‐Analysis
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2021) · doi:10.1002/9781119558378 · Cited by 9,799
Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science
Open Science Collaboration (2015) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.aac4716 · Cited by 8,515
Power failure: why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience
Button, K. S., Ioannidis, J. P. A., Mokrysz, C., Nosek, B. A., Flint, J., Robinson, E. S. J., & Munafò, M. R. (2013) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3475 · Cited by 7,641 · cited 1×
“Given the tendency for small sample sizes to produce inflated effect-size estimates (Button et al., 2013), future studies should include larger samples to produce more precise effect-size estimates.”

Flagged first, then by citations

Show all 212 references

Research works printed but not linked: 17

*Alloway T. P., 2012, Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 23, 197
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*Horvat M. (2014). Vpliv treninga delovnega spomina na kognitivne sposobnosti [The effect of working memory training on cognitive abilities] (Master’s thesis). University of Maribor, Slovenia. (Grey)
**Netto T. M., 2013, Psychology: Reflection and Review, 26, 122
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*Redick T. S., 2015, Poster present at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Psychological Science
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*Shavelson R. J., 2008, Contributions of educational psychology to changing institutions, environments, and people, 1
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*Weicker J., 2013, Poster presented at the 4th Joint Meeting of the European Societies of Neuropsychology (ESN) and the 28th Meeting of the German Society of Neuropsychology (GNP)
10.1037/neu00002 · DOI
*Zhang Q., 2014, Poster presented at the 26th annual convention of the Association for Psychological Science
10.1159/000324240007 · DOI

Sorted by citations

Items 101–200 of 891

Divergent Research Methods Limit Understanding of Working Memory Training
Pergher, V., Shalchy, M. A., Pahor, A., Van Hulle, M. M., Jaeggi, S. M., & Seitz, A. R. (2020) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-019-00134-7 · Cited by 56
Burnout, Cognitive Overload, and Metacognition in Medicine
Iskander, M. (2018) · Medical Science Educator · doi:10.1007/s40670-018-00654-5 · Cited by 61
Effortless training of attention and self-control: mechanisms and applications
Tang, Y.-Y., Tang, R., Posner, M. I., & Gross, J. J. (2022) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2022.04.006 · Cited by 60
Meta-analyses of simultaneous interpreting and working memory
Mellinger, C. D., & Hanson, T. A. (2019) · Interpreting International Journal of Research and Practice in Interpreting · doi:10.1075/intp.00026.mel · Cited by 60
Reward motivation and neurostimulation interact to improve working memory performance in healthy older adults: A simultaneous tDCS-fNIRS study
Rosa, E. D., Brigadoi, S., Cutini, S., Tarantino, V., Dell’Acqua, R., Mapelli, D., Braver, T. S., & Vallesi, A. (2019) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116062 · Cited by 62
“…when it is applied to frontoparietal brain regions that are both selectively engaged during high-level cognitive processing and highly sensitive to the physiological age-related decline (B € ackman et al., 2011, 2010; Braver et al., 1997; Braver and Barch, 2002; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
Small Acute Benefits of 4 Weeks Processing Speed Training Games on Processing Speed and Inhibition Performance and Depressive Mood in the Healthy Elderly People: Evidence from a Randomized Control Trial
Nouchi, R., Saito, T. I., Nouchi, H., & Kawashima, R. (2016) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2016.00302 · Cited by 60
Strategy mediation in working memory training in younger and older adults
Forsberg, A., Fellman, D., Laine, M., Johnson, W., & Logie, R. H. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820915107 · Cited by 62
Demographic, psychological, behavioral, and cognitive correlates of BMI in youth: Findings from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study
Gray, J. C., Schvey, N. A., & Tanofsky-Kraff, M. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719001545 · Cited by 58
“Despite a growing interest in cognitive enhancement interventions, there is currently limited evidence that performance in tasks of abstract reasoning is modifiable (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
Electrophysiological Brain Changes Associated With Cognitive Improvement in a Pediatric Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Digital Artificial Intelligence-Driven Intervention: Randomized Controlled Trial
Medina, R., Bouhaben, J., de Ramón, I., Cuesta, P., Antón‐Toro, L. F., Pacios, J., Quintero, J., Ramos‐Quiroga, J. A., & Maestú, F. (2021) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/25466 · Cited by 62
“…digital cognitive exercises do not show effects superior to those found in other commercial video games not intended for therapeutic uses [37,69,70], these findings, like those reported by Davis et al [41] and Kollins et al [42], seem to indicate that adaptive digital training, built on a…”
Assessment of Specific Learning Disabilities and Intellectual Disabilities
Fletcher, J. M., & Miciak, J. (2023) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/10731911231194992 · Cited by 79
“Reprinted with permission. largely null because such interventions are not strongly associated with improved academic skills (Burns et al., 2016; Kearns & Fuchs, 2013; Melby-Lervag et al., 2016).”
Do Working Memory Deficits Underlie Reading Problems in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)?
Kofler, M. J., Spiegel, J. A., Soto, E. F., Irwin, L. N., Wells, E. L., & Austin, K. E. (2019) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0447-1 · Cited by 57
“…has focused on correlational associations, whereas studies using intervention designs to assess causal relations have generally reported non-significant or minimal effects of working memory on reading performance in both ADHD and neurotypical samples (Melby-Lervåg et al. 2016; Rapport et al. 2013).”
Influential
Examining the Reading and Cognitive Profiles of Students With Significant Reading Comprehension Difficulties
Capin, P., Cho, E., Miciak, J., Roberts, G., & Vaughn, S. R. (2021) · Learning Disability Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0731948721989973 · Cited by 76
“Cognitive interventions that do not involve print or numbers, such as WM trainings (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016), have not been effective in improving academic performance in reading or math.”
Neuroimaging of learning and development: improving ecological validity
van Atteveldt, N., van Kesteren, M. T. R., Braams, B. R., & Krabbendam, L. (2018) · Frontline Learning Research · doi:10.14786/flr.v6i3.366 · Cited by 61
Does chess instruction improve mathematical problem-solving ability? Two experimental studies with an active control group
Sala, G., & Gobet, F. R. (2017) · Learning & Behavior · doi:10.3758/s13420-017-0280-3 · Cited by 54
“Given the importance of controlling for placebo effects reported in music andWM training (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2017b, 2017c), the lack of an active control group is undoubtedly the main flaw of the studies in the field of chess instruction (Gobet & Campitelli, 2006; Gobet, de…”
Training on Abacus-Based Mental Calculation Enhances Visuospatial Working Memory in Children
Wang, C., Xu, T., Geng, F., Hu, Y., Wang, Y., Liu, H., & Chen, F. (2019) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3195-18.2019 · Cited by 58
“This result is consistent with several previous studies reporting no “far” transfer of WM training to intelligence (Redick et al., 2013; Thompson et al., 2013; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
A large-scale analysis of task switching practice effects across the lifespan
Mark Steyvers, B., Hawkins, G. E., Karayanidis, F., & Brown, S. D. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1906788116 · Cited by 55
“Attempts to demonstrate transfer of cognitive training to structurally dissimilar tasks have been challenging (37, 38), possibly in part because of our poor understanding of the latent factors that underlie the learning process (34).”
BrainQuest: The use of motivational design theories to create a cognitive training game supporting hot executive function
Gray, S. I., Robertson, J., Manches, A., & Rajendran, G. (2018) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2018.08.004 · Cited by 65
“This may be because their primary design method, the gamification of cognitive assessments (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Mishra et al., 2016; Simons et al., 2016), may not always afford user experiences which remain inherently engaging over time (Seaborn and Fels, 2015), nor train the range of skills…”
Influential
The latent structure of spatial skill: A test of the 2 × 2 typology.
Mix, K. S., Hambrick, D., Satyam, V. R., Burgoyne, A. P., & Levine, S. C. (2018) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.07.012 · Cited by 61
Adaptive task difficulty influences neural plasticity and transfer of training
Flegal, K. E., Ragland, J. D., & Ranganath, C. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.12.003 · Cited by 58
“Some studies show “near transfer”within the same cognitive domain as trained tasks, but evidence of “far transfer”, or generalization across cognitive domains, is reported less frequently—and regarded more skeptically (Moody, 2009; Shipstead et al., 2012; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
Emerging Cognitive Intervention Technologies to Meet the Needs of an Aging Population: A Systematic Review
Alnajjar, F., Khalid, S., Vogan, A. A., Shimoda, S., Nouchi, R., & Kawashima, R. (2019) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2019.00291 · Cited by 67
“One study, a meta analytical review concluded that a commercially available computer-based training program for working memory skills was only able to have short-term specific training effects and did not generalize to “real world” cognitive skills, which raises question regarding the methodological approach or theore…”
Music Training and Cognitive Abilities: Associations, Causes, and Consequences
Swaminathan, S., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2018) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198804123.013.26 · Cited by 56
Causal underpinnings of working memory and Stroop interference control: Testing the effects of anodal and cathodal tDCS over the left DLPFC
Baumert, A., Buchholz, N., Zinkernagel, A., Clarke, P., MacLeod, C., Osinsky, R., & Schmitt, M. (2019) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-019-00726-y · Cited by 52
Smell-Based Memory Training: Evidence of Olfactory Learning and Transfer to the Visual Domain
Olofsson, J., Ekström, I., Lindström, J., Syrjänen, E., Neely, A. S., Nyberg, L. H., Jonsson, S., & Larsson, M. U. (2020) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjaa049 · Cited by 54
“2010), or only to tasks that are very similar to the trained task, such that the overall pattern of results remain mixed (Melby-Lervåg et al. 2016; Lindenberger et al. 2017; Teixeira-Santos et al. 2019).”
The Effects of Home-Based Cognitive Training on Verbal Working Memory and Language Comprehension in Older Adulthood
Payne, B. R., & Stine‐Morrow, E. A. L. (2017) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2017.00256 · Cited by 57
The Influence of Individual Differences in Cognitive Ability on Working Memory Training Gains
Wiemers, E. A., Redick, T. S., & Morrison, A. B. (2019) · Journal of Cognitive Enhancement · doi:10.1007/s41465-018-0111-2 · Cited by 48
Self-citation
Picture This: A Review of Research Relating to Narrative Processing by Moving Image Versus Language
Jajdelska, E., Anderson, M., Butler, C., Fabb, N., Finnigan, E., Garwood, I., Kelly, S., Kirk, W., Kukkonen, K., Mullally, S. L., et al. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01161 · Cited by 53
No Evidence That Music Training Benefits Speech Perception in Hearing-Impaired Listeners: A Systematic Review
McKay, C. M. (2021) · Trends in Hearing · doi:10.1177/2331216520985678 · Cited by 50
“This difficulty arises mostly through loss of spectral or temporal information in the periphery (e.g., loss of hair cells and their connections with the auditory nerve—features that are not known to be amenable to plastic changes due to training; Moore, 1996).”
Math Anxiety in Combination With Low Visuospatial Memory Impairs Math Learning in Children
Soltanlou, M., Artemenko, C., Dresler, T., Fallgatter, A. J., Ehlis, A., & Nuerk, H. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00089 · Cited by 48
The benefits of simultaneous tDCS and working memory training on transfer outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Pergher, V., Au, J., Shalchy, M. A., Santarnecchi, E., Seitz, A. R., Jaeggi, S. M., & Battelli, L. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.11.008 · Cited by 51
“All that notwithstanding, it would not be surprising if tDCS effects truly do manifest more easily with untrained WM measures rather than trained, considering the wellestablished training-specific improvements known to arise from WMT alone [4,7], which may eclipse the marginal gains from tDCS.”
Influential
An fMRI study of error monitoring in Montessori and traditionally-schooled children
Denervaud, S., Fornari, E., Yang, X.-F., Hagmann, P., Immordino-Yang, M. H., & Sander, D. (2020) · npj Science of Learning · doi:10.1038/s41539-020-0069-6 · Cited by 43
The multiple deficit model of dyslexia: what does it mean for identification and intervention?
Ring, J. J., & Black, J. L. (2018) · Annals of Dyslexia · doi:10.1007/s11881-018-0157-y · Cited by 48
The Interplay Between Working Memory and Background Knowledge in L2 Reading Comprehension
Shin, J.-H., Dronjic, V., & Park, B.-J. (2018) · TESOL Quarterly · doi:10.1002/tesq.482 · Cited by 59
The Role of Executive Functions in Socioeconomic Attainment Gaps: Results From a Randomized Controlled Trial
Blakey, E., Matthews, D. E., Cragg, L., Buck, J., Cameron, D. S., Higgins, B., Pepper, L. B., Ridley, E., Sullivan, E. C., & Carroll, D. J. (2020) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13358 · Cited by 59
Can working memory training work for ADHD? Development of central executive training and comparison with behavioral parent training.
Kofler, M. J., Sarver, D. E., Austin, K. E., Schaefer, H. S., Holland, E., Aduen, P. A., Wells, E. L., Soto, E. F., Irwin, L. N., Schatschneider, C., et al. (2018) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000308 · Cited by 46
“, 2013), neurotypical children (Sala & Gobet, 2017), and diverse samples of children and adults (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Shipstead et al., 2012).”
The Brainfit study: efficacy of cognitive training and exergaming in pediatric cancer survivors – a randomized controlled trial
Benzing, V., Eggenberger, N., Spitzhüttl, J. S., Siegwart, V., Pastore‐Wapp, M., Kiefer, C., Slavova, N., Grotzer, M. A., Heinks, T., Schmidt, M., et al. (2018) · BMC Cancer · doi:10.1186/s12885-017-3933-x · Cited by 48
Direct and indirect contributions of executive function to word decoding and reading comprehension in kindergarten
Haft, S. L., Caballero, J. N., Tanaka, H., Zekelman, L., Cutting, L. E., Uchikoshi, Y., & Hoeft, F. (2019) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101783 · Cited by 56
“Although there are notable limitations (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016) some EF interventions have shown promising effects in young children (Diamond & Lee, 2011; Röthlisberger, Neuenschwander, Cimeli, Michel, & Roebers, 2012).”
Children with Down syndrome can benefit from language interventions; Results from a systematic review and meta-analysis
Smith, E., Hokstad, S., & Næss, K.-A. B. (2020) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2020.105992 · Cited by 46
Noninvasive Brain Stimulation & Space Exploration: Opportunities and Challenges
Romanella, S. M., Sprugnoli, G., Ruffini, G., Seyedmadani, K., Rossi, S., & Santarnecchi, E. (2020) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.09.005 · Cited by 52
Beyond questionable research methods: The role of omitted relevant research in the credibility of research.
Schmidt, F. L. (2017) · Archives of Scientific Psychology · doi:10.1037/arc0000033 · Cited by 45
Problematic smartphone usage, objective smartphone engagement, and executive functions: A latent variable analysis
Hartanto, A., Chua, Y. J., Quek, F. Y. X., Wong, J., Ooi, W. M., & Majeed, N. M. (2023) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-023-02707-3 · Cited by 57
“…recent findings that failed to find a far-transfer effect in computerized working memory training programs and various other experiential factors (e.g., chess, music, video game) (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Redick et al., 2013; Sala & Gobet, 2017; Unsworth et al., 2015; Wiradhany et al., 2020).”
Development and effectiveness of virtual interactive working memory training for older people with mild cognitive impairment: a single-blind randomised controlled trial
Yang, H., Chu, H., Kao, C., Chiu, H., Tseng, I.-J., Tseng, P. H., & Chou, K. (2019) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afz029 · Cited by 47
A randomized controlled trial of central executive training (CET) versus inhibitory control training (ICT) for ADHD.
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“This finding may be due to the absence of any far-transfer effects following WMT (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
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“These measures allow researchers to establish baseline effects, that is, the effects on the skills trained during the intervention (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016).”
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“, 2019), and three meta-analyses have shown smaller improvements in non-trained compared to trained outcomes (Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Mewborn et al., 2017), these effects were still significant in two of these meta-analyses (Karbach and Verhaeghen, 2014; Mewborn et al.”
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Working memory training enhances complex syntax in children with Developmental Language Disorder
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Tai Chi exercise improves working memory capacity and emotion regulation ability
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“For example, a recent working-memory-training metaanalysis (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016) evaluated 87 studies examining transfer to working memory, intelligence, and various educationally relevant outcomes (e.”
Self-citation
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“This conclusion is also consistent with some recent review and meta-analytical studies (Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Melby-Lervåg and Hulme, 2013; Shipstead et al., 2012a, 2012b; Simons et al., 2016) as well as our own findings with this sample reported elsewhere using behavioral and questionnaire measures.”
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“Although not without controversy and limitations [16], working memory training reliably improves working memory performance and may generalize to enhance performance on other cognitive tasks that have not been trained, including those measuring inhibitory control (e.”
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Pattern of Near Transfer Effects Following Working Memory Training With a Dual N-Back Task
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“Furthermore, in several studies (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme, 2013; Melby-Lervåg et al., 2016; Morrison & Chein, 2011; Shipstead et al., 2010, 2012) it has been pointed out that the results from some of the previous WM training studies may have been confounded due to methodological shortcomings, such as employing a no-contac…”
Effects of working memory training on EEG, cognitive performance, and self-report indices potentially relevant for social anxiety
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Overestimation of Action-Game Training Effects: Publication Bias and Salami Slicing
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“One of the most common pitfalls in all genres of game-based learning is conflating improvement in the game for learning (Melby-Lervag, Redick & Hulme, 2016; Owen et al., 2010; Redick et al., 2013; Simons et al., 2016).”
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Authors: Melby-Lervåg, M., Redick, T. S., & Hulme, C.
Affiliations: Department of Special Needs Education, University of Oslo
Purdue University West Lafayette (US)
University of Oslo (NO)
Corresponding author: Redick, Thomas S.
ORCID: Redick, Thomas S.
Hulme, Charles
Venue: Perspectives on Psychological Science
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2016-07
Volume: 11
Issue: 4
Pages: 512-534
ISSN: 1745-6916 (ISSN-L)
1745-6924
DOI: 10.1177/1745691616635612
PMC: PMC4968033
OpenAlex: W2480700159
Semantic Scholar: 57a161286f16efa63b0704de7a0a219ef8c9a24b
Cited by: 983
References: 212
Citations by year: 2026: 87 · 2025: 91 · 2024: 95 · 2023: 83 · 2022: 87 · 2021: 118 · 2020: 130 · 2019: 97 · 2018: 111 · 2017: 69 · 2016: 15
FWCI: 9.91
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by-nc
journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Perspectives on Psychological Science (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
Oxford University Research Archive (ORA) (University of Oxford) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
Funders: Norges Forskningsråd
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01AA013650)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Cognitive and developmental aspects of mathematical skills
Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Developmental and Educational Neuropsychology
Keywords: working memory training, far transfer, intelligence, nonverbal ability, verbal ability, word decoding, reading comprehension, arithmetic, mediation analysis, publication bias, computer-based training, cognitive training
MeSH terms: Cognitive Remediation, Humans, Intelligence, Memory, Short-Term, Transfer, Psychology

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Working Memory Training Does Not Improve Performance on Measures of Intelligence or Other Measures of “Far Transfer”: Evidence From a Meta-Analytic Review

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