Many Labs 2: Investigating variation in replicability across samples and settings
Open accessAbstract
We conducted preregistered replications of 28 classic and contemporary published findings, with protocols that were peer reviewed in advance, to examine variation in effect magnitudes across samples and settings. Each protocol was administered to approximately half of 125 samples that comprised 15,305 participants from 36 countries and territories. Using the conventional criterion of statistical significance ( p < .05), we found that 15 (54%) of the replications provided evidence of a statistically significant effect in the same direction as the original finding. With a strict significance criterion ( p < .0001), 14 (50%) of the replications still provided such evidence, a reflection of the extremely high-powered design. Seven (25%) of the replications yielded effect sizes larger than the original ones, and 21 (75%) yielded effect sizes smaller than the original ones. The median comparable Cohen’s ds were 0.60 for the original findings and 0.15 for the replications. The effect sizes were small (< 0.20) in 16 of the replications (57%), and 9 effects (32%) were in the direction opposite the direction of the original effect. Across settings, the Q statistic indicated significant heterogeneity in 11 (39%) of the replication effects, and most of those were among the findings with the largest overall effect sizes; only 1 effect that was near zero in the aggregate showed significant heterogeneity according to this measure. Only 1 effect had a tau value greater than .20, an indication of moderate heterogeneity. Eight others had tau values near or slightly above .10, an indication of slight heterogeneity. Moderation tests indicated that very little heterogeneity was attributable to the order in which the tasks were performed or whether the tasks were administered in lab versus online. Exploratory comparisons revealed little heterogeneity between Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) cultures and less WEIRD cultures (i.e., cultures with relatively high and low WEIRDness scores, respectively). Cumulatively, variability in the observed effect sizes was attributable more to the effect being studied than to the sample or setting in which it was studied.
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Attention paid to positive, novel, and clean findings may contribute to publication bias, selective reporting, and questionable research practices that reduce the credibility of the published literature.
“This may contribute to publication bias, selective reporting, and questionable research practices that reduce the credibility of the published literature 18-25 .”
From Initial evidence of research quality of registered reports compared with the standard publishing model (2021) · cites this paper as [22]
The Implications section says positive results are perceived as more publishable and describes analytic and post hoc practices that can inflate false positives and diminish credibility. The Discussion also identifies publication bias and p-hacking as possible explanations for replication failures, but says the study cannot determine whether they caused those failures. Our copy does not connect attention to novel or clean findings specifically to these practices. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHeterogeneity is not uncommon, even if it is relatively small, in multisite replications in which heterogeneity can be directly estimated.
“Such heterogeneity is not uncommon, even if it is relatively small, in multisite replications in which heterogeneity can be directly estimated (Ebersole et al., 2020; Klein et al., 2018)”
From Investigating the replicability of preclinical cancer biology (2021) · cites this paper as Klein et al., 2018
Many Labs projects yielded variable rates of replication success.
“Using similar criteria, the”
From Many Labs 4: Failure to Replicate Mortality Salience Effect With and Without Original Author Involvement (2022) · cites this paper as Klein et al., 2018
Samples were categorized as Western or non-Western using previously established geographical categorizations.
“Based on sample country or region, we categorized samples as Western or non-Western using previously established geographical categorizations [23,24].”
From Hasty generalizations and generics in medical research: A systematic review (2024) · cites this paper as [23]
Among humans, different cultures and social groups differ in their moral foundations.
“Among humans, different cultures and social groups differ in their moral foundations.”
From Exploring the psychology of LLMs’ moral and legal reasoning (2024) · cites this paper as Klein et al., 2018
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Klein, R. A., Vianello, M., Hasselman, F., Adams, B. G., Adams, R. B., Alper, S., Aveyard, M., Axt, J. R., Babalola, M. T., Bahník, Š., Batra, R., Berkics, M., Bernstein, M. J., Berry, D. R., Bialobrzeska, O., Binan, E. D., Bocian, K., Brandt, M. J., Busching, R., Rédei, A. C., Cai, H., Cambier, F., Cantarero, K., Carmichael, C. L., Ceric, F., Chandler, J., Chang, J.-H., Chatard, A., Chen, E. E., Cheong, W., Cicero, D. C., Coen, S., Coleman, J. A., Collisson, B., Conway, M. A., Corker, K. S., Curran, P. G., Cushman, F., Dagona, Z. K., Dalgar, I., Dalla Rosa, A., Davis, W. E., de Bruijn, M., De Schutter, L., Devos, T., de Vries, M., Doğulu, C., Dozo, N., Dukes, K. N., Dunham, Y., Durrheim, K., Ebersole, C. R., Edlund, J. E., Eller, A., English, A. S., Finck, C., Frankowska, N., Freyre, M.-Á., Friedman, M., Galliani, E. M., Gandi, J. C., Ghoshal, T., Giessner, S. R., Gill, T., Gnambs, T., Gómez, Á., González, R., Graham, J., Grahe, J. E., Grahek, I., Green, E. G. T., Hai, K., Haigh, M., Haines, E. L., Hall, M. P., Heffernan, M. E., Hicks, J. A., Houdek, P., Huntsinger, J. R., Huynh, H. P., IJzerman, H., Inbar, Y., Innes-Ker, Å. H., Jiménez-Leal, W., John, M.-S., Joy-Gaba, J. A., Kamiloğlu, R. G., Kappes, H. B., Karabati, S., Karick, H., Keller, V. N., Kende, A., Kervyn, N., Knežević, G., Kovacs, C., Krueger, L. E., Kurapov, G., Kurtz, J., Lakens, D., Lazarević, L. B., Levitan, C. A., Lewis, N. A., Lins, S., Lipsey, N. P., Losee, J. E., Maassen, E., Maitner, A. T., Malingumu, W., Mallett, R. K., Marotta, S. A., Međedović, J., Mena-Pacheco, F., Milfont, T. L., Morris, W. L., Murphy, S. C., Myachykov, A., Neave, N., Neijenhuijs, K., Nelson, A. J., Neto, F., Lee Nichols, A., Ocampo, A., O’Donnell, S. L., Oikawa, H., Oikawa, M., Ong, E., Orosz, G., Osowiecka, M., Packard, G., Pérez-Sánchez, R., Petrović, B., Pilati, R., Pinter, B., Podesta, L., Pogge, G., Pollmann, M. M. H., Rutchick, A. M., Saavedra, P., Saeri, A. K., Salomon, E., Schmidt, K., Schönbrodt, F. D., Sekerdej, M. B., Sirlopú, D., Skorinko, J. L. M., Smith, M. A., Smith-Castro, V., Smolders, K. C. H. J., Sobkow, A., Sowden, W., Spachtholz, P., Srivastava, M., Steiner, T. G., Stouten, J., Street, C. N. H., Sundfelt, O. K., Szeto, S., Szumowska, E., Tang, A. C. W., Tanzer, N., Tear, M. J., Theriault, J., Thomae, M., Torres, D., Traczyk, J., Tybur, J. M., Ujhelyi, A., van Aert, R. C. M., van Assen, M. A. L. M., van der Hulst, M., van Lange, P. A. M., van ’t Veer, A. E., Vásquez- Echeverría, A., Ann Vaughn, L., Vázquez, A., Vega, L. D., Verniers, C., Verschoor, M., Voermans, I. P. J., Vranka, M. A., Welch, C., Wichman, A. L., Williams, L. A., Wood, M., Woodzicka, J. A., Wronska, M. K., Young, L., Zelenski, J. M., Zhijia, Z., & Nosek, B. A.
- Affiliations
- Laboratoire Inter-universitaire de Psychologie: Personnalité, Cognition, Changement Social (FR)
- University of Padua (IT)
- Radboud University Nijmegen (NL)
- Tilburg University (NL)
- Pennsylvania State University (US)
- Yaşar University (TR)
- American University of Sharjah (AE)
- Duke University (US)
- United Arab Emirates University (AE)
- Prague University of Economics and Business (CZ)
- Saint Joseph's University (US)
- Eötvös Loránd University (HU)
- California State University, San Marcos (US)
- Warsaw Faculty of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities
- Department of General and Applied Psychology, University of Jos
- Uniwersytet SWPS (PL)
- University of Potsdam (DE)
- Lund University (SE)
- Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CN)
- UCLouvain (BE)
- The Graduate Center, CUNY (US)
- Facultad de Psicologia, Universidad del Desarrollo
- University of Michigan (US)
- National Taiwan University (TW)
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (FR)
- Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (HK)
- HELP University (MY)
- University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa (US)
- University of Salford (GB)
- Virginia Commonwealth University (US)
- Azusa Pacific University (US)
- University of Florida (US)
- Grand Valley State University (US)
- Harvard University (US)
- University of Jos (NG)
- Department of Psychology, Middle East Technical University
- Department of Philosophy, Sociology, Education and Applied Psychology, University of Padua
- Wittenberg University (US)
- Department of Social Psychology, Tilburg University
- Leadership and Human Resource Management, WHU – Otto Beisheim School of Management
- San Diego State University (US)
- Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen
- Başkent University (TR)
- The University of Queensland (AU)
- Allegheny College (US)
- Yale University (US)
- University of KwaZulu-Natal (ZA)
- University of Virginia (US)
- Rochester Institute of Technology (US)
- Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (MX)
- Shanghai International Studies University (CN)
- Universidad de Los Andes (CO)
- Baruch College (US)
- Erasmus University Rotterdam (NL)
- Wilfrid Laurier University (CA)
- Johannes Kepler University of Linz (AT)
- Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (ES)
- Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (CL)
- University of Utah (US)
- Pacific Lutheran University (US)
- Ghent University (BE)
- University of Lausanne (CH)
- Amity University (IN)
- Northumbria University (GB)
- William Paterson University (US)
- Lurie Children's Hospital (US)
- Texas A&M University (US)
- Jan Evangelista Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem (CZ)
- Loyola University Chicago (US)
- Texas A&M University – San Antonio (US)
- University of Toronto (CA)
- Departamento de Psicología, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia
- Worcester Polytechnic Institute (US)
- Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam
- London School of Economics and Political Science (GB)
- Department of Business Administration, Istanbul Bilgi University
- Universidade de Brasília (BR)
- University of Belgrade (RS)
- East Texas A&M University (US)
- James Madison University (US)
- Eindhoven University of Technology (NL)
- Occidental College (US)
- Cornell University (US)
- Universidade do Porto (PT)
- Open University of Tanzania (TZ)
- Tufts University (US)
- Singidunum University (RS)
- Latin University of Costa Rica (CR)
- Victoria University of Wellington (NZ)
- McDaniel College (US)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- Amsterdam Public Health (NL)
- Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida
- George Fox University (US)
- Doshisha University (JP)
- Hong Kong Metropolitan University (HK)
- Stanford University (US)
- Institute for Psychological Research, University of Costa Rica
- Institute of Criminological & Sociological Research (RS)
- California State University, Northridge (US)
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Monash University (AU)
- University of Chicago (US)
- Southern Illinois University Carbondale (US)
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- Jagiellonian University (PL)
- Universidad del Desarrollo (CL)
- Wroclaw Faculty of Psychology, SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities
- Walter Reed Army Institute of Research (US)
- University of Regensburg (DE)
- KU Leuven (BE)
- University of Huddersfield (GB)
- University of Graz (AT)
- Northeastern University (US)
- University of Winchester (GB)
- Universidad Iberoamericana (MX)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Department of Methodology and Statistics, Tilburg University
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Department of Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
- Methodology and Statistics Unit, Institute of Psychology, Leiden University
- Centro de Investigación Básica en Psicología, Universidad de la República
- Department of Psychology, Ithaca College
- Sorbonne Paris Cité (FR)
- University of Groningen (NL)
- Charles University (CZ)
- Western Kentucky University (US)
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- Washington and Lee University (US)
- Boston College (US)
- Carleton University (CA)
- Zhejiang University of Finance and Economics (CN)
- Center for Open Science (US)
- Corresponding author
- Klein, Richard A.
- ORCID
- Klein, Richard A.
- Vianello, Michelangelo
- Hasselman, Fred
- Adams, Byron G.
- Adams, Reginald B.
- Alper, Sinan
- Aveyard, Mark
- Axt, Jordan R.
- Babalola, Mayowa T.
- Bahník, Štěpán
- Batra, Rishtee
- Berkics, Mihály
- Bernstein, Michael J.
- Berry, Daniel R.
- Bocian, Konrad
- Brandt, Mark J.
- Rédei, Anna Cabak
- Cai, Huajian
- Cambier, Fanny
- Cantarero, Katarzyna
- Carmichael, Cheryl L.
- Chandler, Jesse
- Chang, Jen-Ho
- Chatard, Armand
- Chen, Eva E.
- Cicero, David C.
- Coen, Sharon
- Coleman, Jennifer A.
- Collisson, Brian
- Conway, Morgan A.
- Corker, Katherine S.
- Curran, Paul G.
- Cushman, Fiery
- Devos, Thierry
- Doğulu, Canay
- Dukes, Kristin Nicole
- Dunham, Yarrow
- Durrheim, Kevin
- Ebersole, Charles R.
- Edlund, John E.
- English, Alexander Scott
- Finck, Carolyn
- Frankowska, Natalia
- Freyre, Miguel-Ángel
- Galliani, Elisa Maria
- Gandi, Joshua C.
- Ghoshal, Tanuka
- Giessner, Steffen R.
- Gill, Tripat
- Gnambs, Timo
- Gómez, Ángel
- González, Roberto
- Graham, Jesse
- Grahek, Ivan
- Green, Eva G. T.
- Haigh, Matthew
- Haines, Elizabeth L.
- Heffernan, Marie E.
- Hicks, Joshua A.
- Houdek, Petr
- Huynh, Ho Phi
- IJzerman, Hans
- Inbar, Yoel
- Innes-Ker, Åse H.
- John, Melissa-Sue
- Joy-Gaba, Jennifer A.
- Kappes, Heather Barry
- Keller, Victor N.
- Kende, Anna
- Kervyn, Nicolas
- Knežević, Goran
- Kovacs, Carrie
- Krueger, Lacy E.
- Lakens, Daniël
- Lazarević, Ljiljana B.
- Levitan, Carmel A.
- Lewis, Neil A.
- Lins, Samuel
- Lipsey, Nikolette P.
- Losee, Joy E.
- Maassen, Esther
- Maitner, Angela T.
- Malingumu, Winfrida
- Mallett, Robyn K.
- Marotta, Satia A.
- Međedović, Janko
- Milfont, Taciano L.
- Morris, Wendy L.
- Murphy, Sean C.
- Myachykov, Andriy
- Neave, Nick
- Neijenhuijs, Koen
- Neto, Félix
- Ong, Elsie
- Orosz, Gábor
- Packard, Grant
- Petrović, Boban
- Pilati, Ronaldo
- Podesta, Lysandra
- Pogge, Gabrielle
- Pollmann, Monique M. H.
- Rutchick, Abraham M.
- Saavedra, Patricio
- Saeri, Alexander K.
- Salomon, Erika
- Schmidt, Kathleen
- Schönbrodt, Felix D.
- Sekerdej, Maciej B.
- Sirlopú, David
- Skorinko, Jeanine L. M.
- Smith, Michael A.
- Smolders, Karin C. H. J.
- Sowden, Walter
- Steiner, Troy G.
- Stouten, Jeroen
- Street, Chris N. H.
- Szeto, Stephanie
- Szumowska, Ewa
- Tanzer, Norbert
- Tear, Morgan J.
- Theriault, Jordan
- Thomae, Manuela
- Torres, David
- Traczyk, Jakub
- Tybur, Joshua M.
- Ujhelyi, Adrienn
- Vázquez, Alexandra
- Vega, Luis Diego
- Verniers, Catherine
- Verschoor, Mark
- Vranka, Marek A.
- Wichman, Aaron L.
- Williams, Lisa A.
- Wood, Michael
- Woodzicka, Julie A.
- Wronska, Marta K.
- Young, Liane
- Zelenski, John M.
- Nosek, Brian A.
- Venue
- Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2018-12
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 443-490
- ISSN
- 2515-2459 (ISSN-L)
- 2515-2467
- OpenAlex
- W2776961836
- Cited by
- 944
- References
- 142
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 76 · 2024: 119 · 2023: 147 · 2022: 135 · 2021: 152 · 2020: 155 · 2019: 103 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 1 · 2016: 1 · 2013: 2
- FWCI
- 79.88
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science (publishedVersion)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Research Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (acceptedVersion)
- Northumbria Research Link (Northumbria University) (acceptedVersion)
- TU/e Research Portal (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- London School of Economics and Political Science Theses Online (London School of Economics and Political Science) (acceptedVersion)
- Journal of International Crisis and Risk Communication Research (acceptedVersion)
- TU/e Research Portal (acceptedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- LA Referencia (Red Federada de Repositorios Institucionales de Publicaciones Científicas) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (acceptedVersion)
- Huddersfield Research Portal (University of Huddersfield) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- VU Research Portal (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Digital Academic REpository of VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (acceptedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Lirias (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Portuguese National Funding Agency for Science, Research and Technology (RCAAP Project by FCT) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Commons - George Fox University (George Fox University) (submittedVersion)
- Monash University Research Portal (Monash University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Homo Politicus (Academy of Humanities and Economics in Lodz) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Tilburg University Research Portal (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Research portal (Tilburg University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- HAL (submittedVersion)
- Americanae (AECID Library) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Digital Access to Libraries (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Lund University Publications (Lund University) (submittedVersion)
- Rare & Special e-Zone (The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology) (submittedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- UNSWorks (University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- TU/e Research Portal (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Association for Psychological Science
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Reliability and Agreement in Measurement
- Keywords
- replication, effect size heterogeneity, setting effects, pre-registered replication
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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