Nutritional and metabolic status of children with autism vs. neurotypical children, and the association with autism severity
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: The relationship between relative metabolic disturbances and developmental disorders is an emerging research focus. This study compares the nutritional and metabolic status of children with autism with that of neurotypical children and investigates the possible association of autism severity with biomarkers. METHOD: Participants were children ages 5-16 years in Arizona with Autistic Spectrum Disorder (n = 55) compared with non-sibling, neurotypical controls (n = 44) of similar age, gender and geographical distribution. Neither group had taken any vitamin/mineral supplements in the two months prior to sample collection. Autism severity was assessed using the Pervasive Development Disorder Behavior Inventory (PDD-BI), Autism Treatment Evaluation Checklist (ATEC), and Severity of Autism Scale (SAS). Study measurements included: vitamins, biomarkers of vitamin status, minerals, plasma amino acids, plasma glutathione, and biomarkers of oxidative stress, methylation, sulfation and energy production. RESULTS: Biomarkers of children with autism compared to those of controls using a t-test or Wilcoxon test found the following statistically significant differences (p < 0.001): Low levels of biotin, plasma glutathione, RBC SAM, plasma uridine, plasma ATP, RBC NADH, RBC NADPH, plasma sulfate (free and total), and plasma tryptophan; also high levels of oxidative stress markers and plasma glutamate. Levels of biomarkers for the neurotypical controls were in good agreement with accessed published reference ranges. In the Autism group, mean levels of vitamins, minerals, and most amino acids commonly measured in clinical care were within published reference ranges.A stepwise, multiple linear regression analysis demonstrated significant associations between several groups of biomarkers with all three autism severity scales, including vitamins (adjusted R2 of 0.25-0.57), minerals (adj. R2 of 0.22-0.38), and plasma amino acids (adj. R2 of 0.22-0.39). CONCLUSION: The autism group had many statistically significant differences in their nutritional and metabolic status, including biomarkers indicative of vitamin insufficiency, increased oxidative stress, reduced capacity for energy transport, sulfation and detoxification. Several of the biomarker groups were significantly associated with variations in the severity of autism. These nutritional and metabolic differences are generally in agreement with other published results and are likely amenable to nutritional supplementation. Research investigating treatment and its relationship to the co-morbidities and etiology of autism is warranted.
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The lack of difference in Adams et al. could in part be attributed to methodological issues; neither cases nor controls were assessed for autism manifestations by researchers and confounders such as ethnicity, season of blood sampling, medical conditions and medication use were not controlled for in statistical analysis.
“The lack of difference could in part be attributed to some methodological issues; neither cases nor controls were assessed for autism manifestations by researchers and confounders such as ethnicity, season of blood sampling, medical conditions and medication use were not controlled for in statistical analysis.”
From Vitamin D and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review (2016) · cites this paper as [116]
Adams et al. (2011) reported statistically significant differences in several biomarkers indicative of increased oxidative stress, reduced capacity for detoxification and energy transport, and vitamin deficiency in children with ASD than controls, but plasma 25(OH)D did not differ across study groups.
“Although Adams et al. (2011) reported statistically significant differences in several biomarkers indicative of increased oxidative stress, reduced capacity for detoxification and energy transport, and vitamin deficiency in children with ASD than controls, plasma 25(OH)D did not differ across study groups [116].”
From Vitamin D and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review (2016) · cites this paper as [116]
Three other studies that failed to show any relationship had somewhat larger sample sizes (ranging from 54 to 71 per group) and controlled for several covariates and matched controls to cases on several attributes.
“Three other studies that also failed to show any relationship had somewhat larger sample sizes (ranging from 54 to 71 per group) and controlled for several covariates [113] and matched controls to cases on several attributes [79,116].”
From Vitamin D and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review (2016) · cites this paper as [116]
The high prevalence of GI dysfunction and evidence of immune imbalance suggest microbiota involvement in ASD.
“The high prevalence of GI dysfunction (Adams et al., 2011; Chaidez et al., 2014; McElhanon et al., 2014), along with evidence of immune imbalance (Onore et al., 2012), further suggest microbiota involvement in ASD.”
From Human Gut Microbiota from Autism Spectrum Disorder Promote Behavioral Symptoms in Mice (2019) · cites this paper as Adams et al., 2011
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A Prospective Study of Transsulfuration Biomarkers in Autistic Disorders
Geier, D. A., Kern, J. K., Garver, C. R., et al. (2008) · Neurochemical Research · doi:10.1007/s11064-008-9888-1 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Nicotinic Acid Assay in Blood and Urine
Baker, H., Frank, O., Pasher, I., et al. (1960) · Clinical Chemistry · doi:10.1093/clinchem/6.6.572 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Rational dosages of nutrients have a prolonged effect on learning disabilities.
Rm, C., Ente, G., Blum, L., et al. (2000) · PubMed · Cited by 14 · see citing works
A practical assay of lipoate in biologic fluids and liver in health and disease
Baker, H., DeAngelis, B., Baker, E. R., et al. (1998) · Free Radical Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/s0891-5849(98)00087-2 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Distribution of Vitamin B12 Between Plasma and Cells
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[15] Determination, purification, and characterization of α-NADH and α-NADPH
Klemm, A., Steiner, T., Flötgen, U., et al. (1997) · Methods in enzymology on CD-ROM/Methods in enzymology · doi:10.1016/s0076-6879(97)80109-7 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 6
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Human Gut Microbiota from Autism Spectrum Disorder Promote Behavioral Symptoms in Mice
Sharon, G., Cruz, N. J., Kang, D.-W., Gandal, M. J., Wang, B., Kim, Y.-M., Zink, E. M., Casey, C. P., Taylor, B. C., Lane, C. J., et al. (2019) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.05.004 · Cited by 1,182 · see citing works
Autism Spectrum Disorders and the Gut Microbiota
Fattorusso, A., Di Genova, L., Dell’Isola, G., Mencaroni, E., & Esposito, S. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11030521 · Cited by 484 · see citing works
The microbiome: stress, health and disease
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How important is tryptophan in human health?
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Microbiota regulation of the mammalian gut-brain axis
Burokas, A., Moloney, R. D., Dinan, T. G., & Cryan, J. F. (2015) · Advances in applied microbiology · doi:10.1016/bs.aambs.2015.02.001 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
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Self-citationZazpe (2014) · doi:10.1177/0883073813498821 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Metabolic Perturbance in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Metabolomics Study
Ming, X., Stein, T. P., Barnes, V., Rhodes, N., & Guo, L. (2012) · Journal of Proteome Research · doi:10.1021/pr300910n · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Gastrointestinal symptoms and behavioral problems in preschoolers with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Fulceri, F., Morelli, M., Santocchi, E., Cena, H., Del Bianco, T., Narzisi, A., Calderoni, S., & Muratori, F. (2016) · Digestive and Liver Disease · doi:10.1016/j.dld.2015.11.026 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Infantile zinc deficiency: Association with autism spectrum disorders
Yasuda, H., Yoshida, K., Yasuda, Y., & Tsutsui, T. (2011) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep00129 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Nutritional Status of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Do We Know Enough?
Ranjan, S., & Nasser, J. A. (2015) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.3945/an.114.007914 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
The BTBR T+tf/J mouse model for autism spectrum disorders–in search of biomarkers
Meyza, K. Z., Defensor, E. B., Jensen, A. L., Corley, M. J., Pearson, B. L., Pobbe, R. L. H., Bolivar, V. J., Blanchard, D. C., & Blanchard, R. J. (2013) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2012.07.021 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Nutritional and Dietary Interventions for Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Systematic Review
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Vitamin D and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review
Mazahery, H., Camargo, C., Conlon, C., Beck, K., Kruger, M., & Von Hurst, P. (2016) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu8040236 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
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Graf-Myles, J., Farmer, C., Thurm, A., Royster, C., Kahn, P., Soskey, L., Rothschild, L., & Swedo, S. (2013) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0b013e3182a00d17 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
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The Many Faces of Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Autism Spectrum Disorder
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Dietary Patterns of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Study Based in Egypt
Meguid, N., Anwar, M., Zaki, S., Kandeel, W., Ahmed, N., & Tewfik, I. (2015) · Open Access Macedonian Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.3889/oamjms.2015.051 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
- Authors
- Adams, J. B., Audhya, T., McDonough-Means, S., Rubin, R. A., Quig, D., Geis, E., Gehn, E., Loresto, M., Mitchell, J., Atwood, S., Barnhouse, S., & Lee, W.
- Affiliations
- Arizona State University (US)
- Whittier College (US)
- Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine & Health Sciences (US)
- Corresponding author
- Adams, James B
- Venue
- Nutrition & Metabolism
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 8
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 34
- ISSN
- 1743-7075 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3135510
- OpenAlex
- W2155465918
- Cited by
- 442
- References
- 103
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 37 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 32 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 21 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 21 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 32 · 2013: 45 · 2012: 24
- FWCI
- 17.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Nutrition & Metabolism (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Arizona State University Library Digital Repository (Arizona State University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Autism Research Institute
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Trace Elements in Health
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, autism severity, nutritional status, metabolic biomarkers, biotin, plasma glutathione, oxidative stress, methylation, sulfation, energy metabolism, plasma amino acids, tryptophan
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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