Psychometric Properties of the HEXACO Personality Inventory
Abstract
We introduce a personality inventory designed to measure six major dimensions of personality derived from lexical studies of personality structure. The HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI) consists of 24 facet-level personality trait scales that define the six personality factors named Honesty-Humility (H), Emotionality (E), Extraversion (X), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness to Experience (O). In this validation study involving a sample of over 400 respondents, all HEXACO-PI scales showed high internal consistency reliabilities, conformed to the hypothesized six-factor structure, and showed adequate convergent validities with external variables. The HEXACO factor space, and the rotations of factors within that space, are discussed with reference to J. S. Wiggins' work on the circumplex.
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The exact opposite to the positive items is equivalent to the original negative items of the SCS.
“The present research uniquely contributed to the present literature by indicating that the exact opposite to the positive items, which is seen in most psychometric tools (e.g., Baer et al., 2008;Lee & Ashton, 2004), is equivalent to the original negative items.”
From When ‘negativity’ becomes obstructive: a novel exploration of the two-factor model of the Self-Compassion Scale and a comparison of self-compassion and self-criticism interventions (2020) · cites this paper as Lee & Ashton, 2004
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Tiefenbeck, V., Goette, L. F., Degen, K., Tasic, V., Fleisch, E., Lalive, R., & Staake, T. (2016) · Management Science · doi:10.1287/mnsc.2016.2646 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
“of behavior change (Milfont and Sibley 2012), we also interact the treatment effect with the complete set of personality factors measured by the HEXACO Personality Inventory (Lee and Ashton 2004).”
MethodChristensen, A. P., Golino, H. F., & Silvia, P. J. (2020) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2265 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
“Five or six higher order traits are commonly thought to represent the majority of these between-person differences, which are typically assessed using questionnaires (Lee and Ashton, 2004; McCrae and Costa, 1987).”
BackgroundEmpirical identification of the major facets of Conscientiousness
MacCann, C., Duckworth, A. L., & Roberts, R. D. (2009) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2009.03.007 · Cited by 281 · see citing works
“…from the “big five” adjective analysis research as well as more recent questionnaire models of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Digman & Takemoto-Chock, 1981; Fiske, 1949; French, 1953; Goldberg, 1990; Lee & Ashton, 2004; Norman, 1963; Trapnell & Wiggins, 1990; Tupes & Christal, 1992).”
Effelsberg, D., Solga, M., & Gurt, J. (2013) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-013-1644-z · Cited by 287 · see citing works
“A contrastive concept to Machiavellianism is Honesty-Humility, introduced by Lee and Ashton (2004) as one of six major dimensions of personality (HEXACO model; see also Ashton and Lee 2007).”
BackgroundMarcus, B., Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C. (2007) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00063.x · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“It is important to note that the last five dimensions of the HEXACO-PI form a space similar to that of the Big Five/FFM axes (see Lee & Ashton, 2004, 2006, for details).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationThe 24-item Brief HEXACO Inventory (BHI)
de Vries, R. E. (2013) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2013.09.003 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Unearthing the “Green” Personality
Brick, C., & Lewis, G. J. (2016) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916514554695 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
“…sample reported their personality with the 100-item HEXACO Personality Index-Revised, a psychometrically sound and well-established instrument (Lee & Ashton, 2004) that allows for facet-level analyses, and then completed a novel and meaningful measure of environmental actions:…”
MethodInfluentialEast Meets West: A Meta-Analytic Investigation of Cultural Variations in Idealism and Relativism
Forsyth, D. R., O’Boyle, E. H., & McDaniel, M. A. (2008) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-008-9667-6 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
“Lee and Ashton (2004) suggested that ethicality ranks alongside introversion, conscientiousness, and stability as one of the cornerstones of personality, and individuals will differ in their moral actions and judgments depending on their modesty, greediness, and concern for fairness.”
BackgroundA Basic Bivariate Structure of Personality Attributes Evident Across Nine Languages
Saucier, G., Thalmayer, A. G., Payne, D. L., Carlson, R. G., Sanogo, L., Ole‐Kotikash, L., Church, A. T., Katigbak, M. S., Somer, O., Szarota, P., et al. (2013) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12028 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“For six-factor models, measures were six scales from the 200-item HEXACO-PI (Lee & Ashton, 2004) administered in 2003, and the 48-item Questionnaire Big Six scales (48QB6; Thalmayer, Saucier, & Eigenhuis, 2011) administered in 2008.”
MethodTrust: An Integrative Review from a Person–Situation Perspective
Thielmann, I., & Hilbig, B. E. (2015) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000046 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
“To this end, we refer to two models that have been primarily considered in recent personality research on social behavior: the Five-Factor Model (Costa & McCrae, 1992; McCrae & Costa, 1985) and the HEXACO model of personality structure (Ashton & Lee, 2007; Lee & Ashton, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe Nomological Net of the HEXACO Model of Personality: A Large-Scale Meta-Analytic Investigation
Zettler, I., Thielmann, I., Hilbig, B. E., & Moshagen, M. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691619895036 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
“(2000); Boies, Yoo, Ebacher, Lee, and Ashton (2004); De Vries (2013); De Vries, Ashton, and Lee (2009); De Vries, Lee, and Ashton (2008); Lee and Ashton (2004, 2006, 2008); Moshagen, Hilbig, and Zettler (2014); Romero, Villar, and López-Romero (2015); Sibley et al.”
BackgroundMethodPillars of cooperation: Honesty–Humility, social value orientations, and economic behavior
Hilbig, B. E., & Zettler, I. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.01.003 · Cited by 257 · see citing works
Higher Order Factors of Personality: Do They Exist?
Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., Goldberg, L. R., & de Vries, R. E. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309338467 · Cited by 258 · see citing works
“…section, we analyze a variable set that does contain mutually orthogonal markers of the major factors of personality.6 This variable set consists of 12 facet-level scales from the short HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI; Lee & Ashton, 2004), in which each facet scale contains four items.”
MethodResultSelf-citationDevelopment and initial validation of an implicit measure of humility relative to arrogance
Rowatt, W., Powers, C., Targhetta, V., Comer, J., Kennedy, S. C., & LaBouff, J. P. (2006) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760600885671 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
“Although implicit humility and a general measure of conscientiousness did not correlate in Study 1, a broader measure of conscientiousness (see Lee & Ashton, 2004) that taps facets like diligence (a tendency to work hard) and prudence (a tendency to deliberate carefully and inhibit impulses) could…”
BackgroundInfluentialFive-Factor Model of Personality Disorder: A Proposal for DSM-V
Widiger, T. A., & Mullins‐Sweatt, S. N. (2008) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.032408.153542 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
“Lee & Ashton (2004) similarly include a facet for “unconventionality” within their conceptualization of openness (along with aesthetic appreciation, creativity, and inquisitiveness).”
BackgroundCAPTION-ing the situation: A lexically-derived taxonomy of psychological situation characteristics.
Parrigon, S., Woo, S. E., Tay, L., & Wang, T. (2016) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000111 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Hilbig, B. E., Zettler, I., Leist, F., & Heydasch, T. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.11.008 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Nielsen, R., Marrone, J. A., & Slay, H. S. (2010) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051809350892 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“Finally, an honesty–humility factor has recently emerged within personality research (Lee & Ashton, 2004).”
BackgroundPersonality, Emotions, and the Emotional Disorders
Watson, D., & Naragon-Gainey, K. (2014) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702614536162 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
“For example, the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (Costa & McCrae, 1992) divides each domain into six facets, whereas the HEXACO Personality Inventory (Lee & Ashton, 2004) includes only four component traits per domain.”
MethodBeyond g: Putting multiple intelligences theory to the test
Visser, B. A., Ashton, M. C., & Vernon, P. A. (2006) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2006.02.004 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Self-citationComparative validity of Brief to Medium-Length Big Five and Big Six Personality Questionnaires.
Thalmayer, A. G., Saucier, G., & Eigenhuis, A. (2011) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0024165 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
“Lee and Ashton (2004) reported internal consistency values ranging from .81–.84 for the six scales in the 96-item version (N 1,126 college students; the authors refer to this as a 100-item version, because it also includes four items “interstitial” between A and H which do not belong to one of the…”
BackgroundReliability and Validity of the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5)
Fossati, A., Krueger, R. F., Markon, K. E., Borroni, S., & Maffei, C. (2013) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191113504984 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
“…may be interpreted also as the opposite pole of Sincerity personality trait, a trait of the Honesty-Humility HEXACO personality domain (Lee & Ashton, 2004), which has been shown to be significantly correlated with self-report psychopathy in noninsititutionalized individuals (Lee &…”
BackgroundThe Assessment of Sadistic Personality: Preliminary psychometric evidence for a new measure
Plouffe, R. A., Saklofske, D. H., & Smith, M. M. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.07.043 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
“Prior research supports the reliability and validity of the HEXACO (Lee & Ashton, 2004).”
MethodWatson, D., Clark, L. A., & Chmielewski, M. (2008) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00531.x · Cited by 234 · see citing works
“(1994) and Markon et al. (2005). The higher order factors that form the apex of this hierarchy essentially are maladaptive variants of the Big Five personality traits, minus Openness (e.”
BackgroundWu, J., & LeBreton, J. M. (2011) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2011.01220.x · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Grucza, R. A., & Goldberg, L. R. (2007) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223890701468568 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
“The HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO-PI: Lee & Ashton, 2004) included 192 items with five-step response options, and contained 24 lower-level “facet” scales, four subsumed within each of its six higher-level “domains,” labeled Honesty–Humility (H), Emotionality (E), eXtraversion (X),…”
MethodCharacter strengths in the United Kingdom: The VIA Inventory of Strengths
Linley, P. A., Maltby, J., Wood, A. M., Joseph, S., Harrington, S., Peterson, C., Park, N., & Seligman, M. E. P. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.004 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
“How are the 24 strengths associated with five-factor (e.g., John & Srivastava, 1999) and six-factor (e.g., HEXACO; Lee & Ashton, 2004 ) models of personality? Does the measurement of character strengths add incremental validity beyond the traditional measurement of personality? Are strengths associated with subjective…”
Big Five and HEXACO Personality Traits, Proenvironmental Attitudes, and Behaviors: A Meta-Analysis
Soutter, A. R. B., Bates, T. C., & Mõttus, R. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620903019 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
The Role of Interpersonal Traits in Social Decision Making
Zhao, K., & Smillie, L. D. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314553709 · Cited by 225 · see citing works
“Its lower-level facets and aspects include altruism, trust, straightforwardness, compliance, modesty, tendermindedness (NEO PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992b), and politeness and compassion (BFAS; DeYoung et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPersonality and prosocial behavior: Linking basic traits and social value orientations.
Hilbig, B. E., Glöckner, A., & Zettler, I. (2014) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036074 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Personality Traits Beyond the Big Five: Are They Within the HEXACO Space?
Lee, K., Ogunfowora, B., & Ashton, M. C. (2005) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00354.x · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Self-citationAlbrecht, S. L., & Marty, A. (2017) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585192.2017.1362660 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
“Lee and Ashton (2004) reported alpha reliabilities ranging from .78 to .86 for the facets within the emotional stability, extraversion, and conscientiousness factors.”
BackgroundMethodObjections to the HEXACO Model of Personality Structure—and why those Objections Fail
Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2020) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2242 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
“As an example, the HEXACO personality inventory (K. Lee & Ashton, 2004) is a six-factor model that includes Honesty–Humility (not included in our study because it is not a Big Five inventory).”
MethodSelf-citationPersonality Correlates of Workplace Anti‐Social Behavior
Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., & Shin, K. (2005) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00197.x · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Self-citationMcGrath, R. E. (2014) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2014.994222 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
“The HEXACO Personality Inventory (HEXACO; Lee & Ashton, 2004) includes 192 items with five-point response options (N = 665).”
MethodA life history approach to understanding the Dark Triad
McDonald, M. M., Donnellan, M. B., & Navarrete, C. D. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.12.003 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
“The first measure included 40 items taken from the International Personality Item Pool (IPIP; Johnson, unpublished manuscript); the second measure included 34 items from the HEXACO personality inventory (Lee & Ashton, 2004).”
MethodIs the Dark Triad common factor distinct from low Honesty-Humility?
Hodson, G., Book, A. S., Visser, B. A., Volk, A. A., Ashton, M. C., & Lee, K. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2017.11.012 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
“As operationalized in the HEXACO Personality Inventory—Revised (e.g., Ashton & Lee, 2009; Lee & Ashton, 2004, in press), Honesty-Humility is defined by four facet-level traits called Sincerity, Fairness, Greed Avoidance, and Modesty (see Table 1; see also descriptions at http://hexaco.org/…”
MethodSelf-citationHumility and the Development and Repair of Social Bonds: Two Longitudinal Studies
Davis, D. E., Worthington, E. L., Hook, J. N., Emmons, R. A., Hill, P. C., Bollinger, R. A., & Tongeren, D. R. V. (2012) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.636509 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“…mass, and the field appears to be on the verge of a breakthrough, with the emergence of recent theoretical and methodological innovations (i.e., Davis et al., 2011; Davis, Worthington et al., 2010; Kwan, John, Kenny, 2004; Kwan, John, Robins, & Kuang, 2008; Lee & Ashton, 2004; Rowatt et al., 2006).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialAn integrative dimensional classification of personality disorder.
Widiger, T. A., Livesley, W. J., & Clark, L. A. (2009) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0016606 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Student engagement and performance: A weekly diary study on the role of openness
Bakker, A. B., Sanz‐Vergel, A. I., & Kuntze, J. (2014) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-014-9422-5 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Leadership and individual differences: At the cusp of a renaissance
Antonakis, J., Day, D. V., & Schyns, B. (2012) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2012.05.002 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
“At this time, there is still debate on what constitutes a trait (Jackson, Hill, & Roberts, 2012), whether personality is measured broadly enough (K. Lee & Ashton, 2004, 2008), whether big-five type inventories are casting too long a shadow over other individual differences that could also…”
BackgroundPredicting domain‐specific risk taking with the HEXACO personality structure
Weller, J. A., & Tikir, A. (2010) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.677 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
“This trait dimension can be defined by terms such as sincere, fair, modest, and unassuming, versus sly, deceitful, greedy, and pretentious (Lee & Ashton, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialA meta-analysis of the relations between personality and workplace deviance: Big Five versus HEXACO
Pletzer, J. L., Bentvelzen, M., Oostrom, J. K., & de Vries, R. E. (2019) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2019.04.004 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
“…job performance ratings depend heavily on workplace deviance ratings (as much as task performance ratings and more than OCB ratings; Dunlop & Lee, 2004; Rotundo & Sackett, 2002), this meta-analysis suggests that it is important to capture variance associated with Honesty-Humility in…”
BackgroundLee, K., Ashton, M. C., Ogunfowora, B., Bourdage, J. S., & Shin, K. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.08.007 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Self-citationA new trait on the market: Honesty–Humility as a unique predictor of job performance ratings
Johnson, M. K., Rowatt, W. C., & Petrini, L. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.01.011 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Similarity and assumed similarity in personality reports of well-acquainted persons.
Lee, K., Ashton, M. C., Pozzebon, J. A., Visser, B. A., Bourdage, J. S., & Ogunfowora, B. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014059 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
“The first subsample (n 326) was used in Lee and Ashton (2006)”
MethodSelf-citationSocial Value Orientation and information search in social dilemmas: An eye-tracking analysis
Fiedler, S., Glöckner, A., Nicklisch, A., & Dickert, S. (2013) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2012.07.002 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Motivational Basis of Personality Traits: A Meta‐Analysis of Value‐Personality Correlations
Fischer, R., & Boer, D. (2015) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12125 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Smart home: Highly-educated students' acceptance
Baudier, P., Ammi, C., & Deboeuf-Rouchon, M. (2018) · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · doi:10.1016/j.techfore.2018.06.043 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Social and emotional skills for student success and well-being
Chernyshenko, O. S., Kankaraš, M., & Drasgow, F. (2018) · OECD education working papers · doi:10.1787/db1d8e59-en · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“The 24-facet taxonomy from the HEXACO personality inventory (Lee and Ashton, 2004[242]).”
MethodBelief in conspiracy theories and intentions to engage in everyday crime
Jolley, D., Douglas, K. M., Leite, A. C., & Schrader, T. (2019) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12311 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
“Specifically, in the HEXACO model of personality (Lee & Ashton, 2004), Honesty-Humility (which embodies people’s moral conscience) is an important predictor of unethical business decisions (Lee & Ashton, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodGrandiose and vulnerable narcissism from the perspective of the interpersonal circumplex
Miller, J. D., Price, J., Gentile, B., Lynam, D. R., & Campbell, W. K. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.04.026 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
“HEXACO-PI-R The HEXACO-PI-R (Lee & Ashton, 2004) is a 100-item self-report measure of the HEXACO model of personality.”
MethodHow Other-Oriented Perfectionism Differs from Self-Oriented and Socially Prescribed Perfectionism
Stoeber, J. (2013) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-013-9397-7 · Cited by 188 · see citing works
- Authors
- Lee, K., & Ashton, M. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Calgary (CA)
- Brock University (CA)
- Venue
- Multivariate Behavioral Research
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2004-04
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 329-358
- ISSN
- 0027-3171 (ISSN-L)
- 1532-7906
- OpenAlex
- W2029342244
- Semantic Scholar
- b44b39beaf8a9bdeddd6f7e558c45dde7056f20a
- Cited by
- 1,961
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 60 · 2025: 91 · 2024: 102 · 2023: 156 · 2022: 149 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 205 · 2019: 143 · 2018: 125 · 2017: 124 · 2016: 125 · 2015: 95 · 2014: 100 · 2013: 79 · 2012: 60
- FWCI
- 14.18
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Multivariate Behavioral Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
- Keywords
- HEXACO personality, personality structure, honesty-humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, factor structure, psychometric validation, circumplex model, personality assessment
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