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Cited by 3Language Development and DisordersEFL/ESL Teaching and LearningHearing Impairment and Communication

Can grammatical morphemes be taught? Evidence of gestures influencing second language procedural learning in middle childhood

Open access
Janzen Ulbricht, Natasha·2023·PLOS ONE
DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0280543PMC PMC9891517
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Abstract

What kind of practice makes perfect when children learn to use grammatical morphemes in a second language? Gestures are communicative hand and arm movements which teachers naturally employ as a teaching tool in the classroom. Gesture theory has proposed that gestures package information and previous studies suggest their value for teaching specific items, such as words, as well as abstract systems, such as language. There is broad consensus that implicit learning mechanisms in children are more developed than explicit ones and that everyday use of grammar is implicit and entails developing implicit knowledge. However, while many learners have difficulties acquiring new morpho-syntactic structures, such as the plural{-s} and 3 rd person possessive {-s} in English, research on gesture and syntax in middle childhood remains rare. The present study (N = 19) was conducted to better understand if gestures which embody grammatical morphemes during instruction can contribute to procedural learning. Using a novel task, the gesture speeded fragment completion task, our behavioral results show a decrease in mean response times after instruction in the test condition utilizing syntactically specific gestures. This increase in procedural learning suggests that learners in this age group can benefit from embodied instruction in the classroom which visually differentiates between grammatical morphemes which differ in meaning but sound the same.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In a three-week classroom study with 11–12-year-old learners in Germany, gesture-based instruction for English plural {-s} and 3rd person possessive {-s} was tested with a novel gesture speeded fragment completion task. The syntactically specific two-gesture condition showed a larger pretest-to-posttest decrease in response time than the syntactically general one-gesture condition, with a significant session × condition interaction (p = .039).

Key findings

  • Mean correct response time in the syntactically specific (two-gesture) condition decreased from 1.98 s (SD = .71) at pretest to 1.77 s (SD = .68) at posttest; in the syntactically general (one-gesture) condition it decreased from 1.94 s (SD = .75) to 1.84 s (SD = .71).
  • Model comparison showed adding session improved fit, Chisq(1) = 4.59, p = .031; adding condition alone did not, Chisq(1) = 3.48, p = .061; adding the session × condition interaction did improve fit, Chisq(1) = 4.22, p = .039. A post hoc Tukey test showed the S (two-gesture) and G (one-gesture) conditions differed significantly at p < .05.
  • Erroneously completed targets comprised 17.9% of the data, and response times slower than the individual cutoff (>2 SDs) excluded another 3.8%; after applying the cutoff, no responses were slower than 5.7 seconds.
  • The authors interpret the results as suggesting that syntactically specific gestures can support procedural learning and semantic prediction, though the pattern was not universal across learners.

Methods

  • Within-participant pretest-posttest design with 11–12-year-old primary school learners in urban Germany; the abstract reports N = 19, while the participants section describes 23 learners and the analysis includes students who completed both test sessions in both conditions. Instruction totaled four 60-minute lessons over four days (four hours).
  • The gesture speeded fragment completion (GSF) task used 32 items per condition and 64 trials per participant; children viewed the first three morphemes in gesture form (e.g., the + dog + s) followed by a semantically related written fragment (e.g., n_ck) and response time was measured on completion. Conditions were blocked and counterbalanced; PsychoPy Experiment Builder v3.1.2 was used.
  • Multilevel regression analyses were conducted in R Version 4.0.3 with the lme4 package, with subject as a random effect and session and condition as fixed effects; model fit was compared using log-likelihood/chi-square statistics.

Limitations

  • Stated: it remains unclear why gesture-based training was more effective for some children than others; additional studies with different paradigms and more participants are required; the extent to which the gestural benefit generalizes to other syntactic learning situations remains to be explored.
  • Stated: the GSF task may have been too complex because spelling knowledge is needed to access the concept and syntactic learning; four lessons may have been insufficient for consolidation for all children; a follow-up could space teaching over several weeks.
  • Stated: confidence intervals were wide, not every learner showed a steeper session-to-session decrease in the syntactically specific condition, and there were large differences between learners. Evident from the text: the sample was a small convenience sample (23 described, 19 analyzed in the abstract), and the design compared two gesture conditions without a non-gesture or no-instruction control condition.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1371/journal.pone.0280543

Cites

77 of 77 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

23 of 64 cited sources checked · 16 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Syntax can be taught.

    “This is obviously not the case [32,33].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [32] M. Macedonia, 2019, Embodied Learning: Why at school the mind needs the body, Frontiers in Psychology [Internet]. source

      The Second Language Learning (L2) and the Body section says Total Physical Response did not focus on syntax and describes its limits for teaching vocabulary. It does not address whether syntax can be taught; searches for syntax and grammar instruction found no passage that settles that claim. (LLM, conf=0.73)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [33] Ortega G. Iconicity, 2017, sign lexical acquisition: A Review., Frontiers in Psychology [Internet] source

      The Sign L2 Learning section describes instruction in individual signs and improved sign articulation after lessons, but does not address whether syntax can be taught. The Sign Iconicity and Linguistic Constraints section discusses grammatical structures without making a claim about teaching syntax (searched: syntax, grammar instruction). (LLM, conf=0.70)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Gesture influences learning abstract concepts.

    “Thus it is unsurprising that gesture has been shown to influence how we understand complex language [4] and learn abstract concepts [5].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [5] M Macedonia, 2012, Gestures enhance foreign language learning., Biolinguistics [Internet] source
  • Premisecitation

    Gesture influences how we understand complex language.

    “Thus it is unsurprising that gesture has been shown to influence how we understand complex language [4] and learn abstract concepts [5].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] H Holle, 2012, Gesture Facilitates the Syntactic Analysis of Speech., Frontiers in Psychology [Internet] source
  • Premisecitation

    Neural representations of words consist of complex multimodal networks represented in sensory and motor brain areas in an experience-dependent way.

    “Behavioral and neuroscientific studies suggest that the neural representations of words consist of complex multimodal networks represented in sensory and motor brain areas in an experience-dependent way [2,3].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [2] AM Glenberg, 2002, Grounding language in action., Psychonomic Bulletin & Review [Internet] source

      The paper’s Abstract says words are mapped to modal perceptual symbols based on brain states involved in perception, and Experiment 1 links sentence comprehension to simulated action. It does not establish that word representations are complex multimodal networks located in sensory and motor brain areas, or that those networks are experience-dependent. The indexed passages provide section labels but no page numbers. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [3] F. Pulvermüller, 2005, Brain mechanisms linking language and action, Nature Reviews Neuroscience [Internet] source
  • Premisecitation

    For more abstract words, gestured input at the level of the morpheme, as opposed to reading plus gestures at the sentence level, benefitted all learners, regardless of their initial level.

    “Here it was found that for these more abstract words, gestured input at the level of the morpheme, as opposed to reading plus gestures at the sentence level, benefitted all learners, regardless of their initial level.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] N. Janzen Ulbricht, 2020, The Embodied Teaching of Spatial Terms: Gestures Mapped to Morphemes Improve Learning., Front Educ [Internet] source

      The Differences Between Experimental Groups section reports a larger immediate gain in spatial-term ability for children taught with morpheme-level gestures than for those taught with sentence-level gestures and written text. The Summary says the groups’ results became less distinct over time. Our copy does not establish that morpheme-level gestures benefited all learners regardless of their initial level. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 55
  • May combine two claims. 19

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Gestures must be semantically related to words in order to support long-term memory.

    “However, gesture research suggests that gestures must be semantically related to words in order to support long term memory [32].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [32] M. Macedonia, 2019, Embodied Learning: Why at school the mind needs the body, Frontiers in Psychology [Internet]. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The Gesture-for-Conceptualization Hypothesis states that gestures can schematize information and conceptually link hand movements not only to speaking but also to thinking itself.

    “Gesture researchers have proposed the Gesture-for-Conceptualization Hypothesis (GfCH) which states that gestures can schematize information and conceptually link hand movements not only to speaking, but also more generally to thinking itself [29].”
    • Also stated in: § Gestures for thinking and speaking · plain
      “As previously mentioned, researchers have recently proposed the Gesture-for-Conceptualization Hypothesis (GfCH) stating that gestures schematize information and are conceptually linked to thinking as well as speaking [29].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [29] S Kita, 2017, How do gestures influence thinking and speaking? The gesture-for-conceptualization hypothesis., Psychological Review [Internet] source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Two at least partially independent neural systems, the declarative and procedural memory systems, underlie learning, representing and applying relevant knowledge.

    “A leading tenet of neurobiological theory on learning and memory is that two at least partially independent neural systems, the declarative and procedural memory systems, underlie learning, representing and applying relevant knowledge [34–36].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [34] A. Baddeley, 2012, Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies, Annual Review of Psychology [Internet] source
    • cites [35] MT Ullman, 2020, The Neurocognition of Developmental Disorders of Language., Annu Rev Psychol [Internet] source
    • cites [36] MT Ullman, 2016 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Adding gesture does not automatically improve learning outcomes.

    “At the same time, research also shows that adding gesture does not automatically improve learning outcomes [18–22] leading researchers to call for more specific predictions about which gestures support learning and when these gestures will be helpful [23–25].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim3 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [18] SD Kelly, 2014, Exploring the role of hand gestures in learning novel phoneme contrasts and vocabulary in a second language., Frontiers Psychololgy [Internet] source
    • cites [19] A Yeo, 2017, Teachers’ gestures and students’ learning: sometimes “hands off” is better, Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications [Internet] source
    • cites [20] S Kelly, 2017, Metaphoric Gestures Facilitate Perception of Intonation More than Length in Auditory Judgments of Non-Native Phonemic Contrasts., Collabra: Psychology [Internet] source
    • cites [21] Y Hirata, 2010, Effects of Lips and Hands on Auditory Learning of Second-Language Speech Sounds, J Speech Lang Hear Res [Internet] source
    • cites [22] M Hoetjes, 2020, Using Gesture to Facilitate L2 Phoneme Acquisition: The Importance of Gesture and Phoneme Complexity., Front Psychol [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Premisecitation

    It is because gesture activates visual representations of concrete concepts that it facilitates learning.

    “It is further hypothesized that it is because gesture activates visual representations of concrete concepts that it facilitates learning [33].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [33] Ortega G. Iconicity, 2017, sign lexical acquisition: A Review., Frontiers in Psychology [Internet] source

      The Introduction says iconic gestures can facilitate word learning by helping learners connect perceptual features with a referent. It does not say that gesture does so by activating visual representations of concrete concepts; the Sign L2 Learning section describes a separate visualization condition but does not establish that mechanism. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Especially for learning which is new, this result suggests that teaching over time is important in order to consolidate what has been learned.

    “Especially for learning which is new, this result suggests that teaching over time is important in order to consolidate what has been learned [82].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [82] P Kelley, 2018, Making Memories: Why Time Matters., Front Hum Neurosci [Internet] source
    • Rests on an assumption: Hebbian mechanisms for synaptic modification explain why consolidation of learning is an important concept.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There is much research providing empirical support for the role of gestures in L2 learning for aspects such as speech comprehension, word memorization and pronunciation.

    “There is much research providing empirical support for the role of gestures in L2 learning for aspects such as speech comprehension [9,10], word memorization [11,12] and pronunciation [13–17].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim4 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [9] J Llanes-Coromina, 2018, Beat gestures help preschoolers recall and comprehend discourse information, Journal of Experimental Child Psychology [Internet]. source

      The Discussion and Conclusions (page unavailable) report that beat gestures helped children comprehend narratives, supporting the speech-comprehension portion of the sentence. The study concerns children acquiring their first language, not L2 learning; it does not establish a benefit for L2 speech comprehension. The citation’s placement beside speech comprehension does not attribute the word-memorization or pronunciation portions to this source. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [10] LM Morett, 2015, Emphasising sound and meaning: pitch gestures enhance Mandarin lexical tone acquisition. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience [Internet]. source
    • cites [11] O Kushch, 2018, Prominence in speech and gesture favour second language novel word learning. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience [Internet]. source
    • cites [12] F Baills, 2019, Observing and producing pitch gestures facilitates the learning of Mandarin Chinese tones and words., Studies in Second Language Acquisition [Internet] source
    • cites [13] D Gluhareva, 2017, Training with rhythmic beat gestures benefits L2 pronunciation in discourse-demanding situations., Language Teaching Research [Internet] source
    • cites [14] P Li, 2021, Training non-native aspirated plosives with hand gestures: learners’ gesture performance matters. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience [Internet]. source
    • cites [15] F Ghaemi, 2018, The Impact of Visual Aids on the Retention of English Word Stress Patterns, International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature [Internet] source
    • cites [16] C Yuan, 2019, Observing pitch gestures favors the learning of Spanish intonation by Mandarin speakers., Studies in Second Language Acquisition [Internet] source
    • cites [17] A Zhen, 2019, Manual directional gestures facilitate cross-modal perceptual learning., Cognition [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Procedural knowledge is quickly processed in parallel with other cognitive processes and thus places less of a burden on working memory.

    “Procedural knowledge is quickly processed in parallel with other cognitive processes and thus places less of a burden on working memory [38].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] N de Jong, 2011, Fluency Training in the ESL Classroom: An Experimental Study of Fluency Development and Proceduralization, Language Learning [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Meaning is embodied.

    “This approach is consistent with the premise that meaning is embodied and that learning occurs as a result of collaboration with others in familiar socially constructed settings [70–72]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [70] J. Bruner, 1983

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [71] KJ Rohlfing, 2016, An Alternative to Mapping a Word onto a Concept in Language Acquisition: Pragmatic Frames., Frontiers in Psychology [Internet] source

      In “Pragmatic Frames Consist of a Meaning and a Syntax” (page unavailable), the paper links meaning to bodily actions and says that extracting interaction patterns might involve “embodied abstraction.” Its conclusion also locates meaning in joint routines and participants’ contributions. These passages support an embodied aspect of meaning, but do not state the unqualified premise that meaning is embodied. (LLM, conf=0.79)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [72] M Tomasello, 2012, Two Key Steps in the Evolution of Human Cooperation: The Interdependence Hypothesis, Current Anthropology [Internet]. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Learning occurs as a result of collaboration with others in familiar socially constructed settings.

    “This approach is consistent with the premise that meaning is embodied and that learning occurs as a result of collaboration with others in familiar socially constructed settings [70–72]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [70] J. Bruner, 1983

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [71] KJ Rohlfing, 2016, An Alternative to Mapping a Word onto a Concept in Language Acquisition: Pragmatic Frames., Frontiers in Psychology [Internet] source
    • cites [72] M Tomasello, 2012, Two Key Steps in the Evolution of Human Cooperation: The Interdependence Hypothesis, Current Anthropology [Internet]. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A follow-up study using the same teaching methods investigated spatial term learning.

    “A follow-up study using the same teaching methods investigated spatial term learning [61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [61] N. Janzen Ulbricht, 2020, The Embodied Teaching of Spatial Terms: Gestures Mapped to Morphemes Improve Learning., Front Educ [Internet] source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    In this experiment, a decrease in response time was evaluated as an increase in procedural learning, following Ferman and Karni [59].

    “For example, following Ferman and Karni [59], in this experiment a decrease in response time was evaluated as an increase in procedural learning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ferman and Karni [59] S Ferman, 2010, No Childhood Advantage in the Acquisition of Skill in Using an Artificial Language Rule., PLoS One [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    After applying the individual cutoff value, no responses were slower than 5.7 seconds.

    “PsychoPy did not accept responses faster than 250 ms and after applying the individual cutoff value no responses were slower than 5.7 seconds, so no further cleaning was necessary.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Response times slower than the individual cutoff value excluded another 3.8% of the data.

    “Erroneously completed targets comprised 17.9% of the data and response times slower than the individual cutoff value excluded another 3.8% of the data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In the S (two-gesture) condition, average response time for correctly answered word fragments was 1.98 seconds (SD = .71) at pretest.

    “This led to an average RT in the S (two-gesture) condition of 1.98 seconds (SD = .71) at pretest and 1.77 seconds (SD = .68) at posttest and an average RT in the G (one-gesture) condition of 1.94 seconds (SD = .75) at pretest and 1.84 seconds (SD = .71) at posttest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In the S (two-gesture) condition, average response time for correctly answered word fragments was 1.77 seconds (SD = .68) at posttest.

    “This led to an average RT in the S (two-gesture) condition of 1.98 seconds (SD = .71) at pretest and 1.77 seconds (SD = .68) at posttest and an average RT in the G (one-gesture) condition of 1.94 seconds (SD = .75) at pretest and 1.84 seconds (SD = .71) at posttest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingown data

    These changes in response time show that there are large differences between learners.

    “These changes in response time show that there are large differences between learners.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In the G (one-gesture) condition, average response time for correctly answered word fragments was 1.84 seconds (SD = .71) at posttest.

    “This led to an average RT in the S (two-gesture) condition of 1.98 seconds (SD = .71) at pretest and 1.77 seconds (SD = .68) at posttest and an average RT in the G (one-gesture) condition of 1.94 seconds (SD = .75) at pretest and 1.84 seconds (SD = .71) at posttest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Erroneously completed targets comprised 17.9% of the data.

    “Erroneously completed targets comprised 17.9% of the data and response times slower than the individual cutoff value excluded another 3.8% of the data.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingown data

    Visual inspection of Fig 3 suggests that a gain could be measured between pre and posttest in the syntactically specific condition.

    “Visual inspection of Fig 3 suggests that a gain could be measured between pre and posttest in the syntactically specific condition.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “Regarding question one, visual inspection of Fig 3 shows a gain in procedural learning between pre and posttest.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the study, a fairly large number of subjects showed a steeper session-to-session decrease in response time for condition S, but the pattern was not universal.

    “A fairly large number of subjects show a steeper session-to-session decrease in RT for condition S. But the pattern is not universal.”
    • Also stated in: § Summary · plain
      “While this was not true for every individual learner, as can be seen in Fig 4, this change was statistically significant (p = .039) as expressed in the mRandom_interaction model output which includes an interaction between session and condition.”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “As can be seen in Fig 4, this was not true for all learners, however, what this exactly means is not easy to interpret.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    In the G (one-gesture) condition, average response time for correctly answered word fragments was 1.94 seconds (SD = .75) at pretest.

    “This led to an average RT in the S (two-gesture) condition of 1.98 seconds (SD = .71) at pretest and 1.77 seconds (SD = .68) at posttest and an average RT in the G (one-gesture) condition of 1.94 seconds (SD = .75) at pretest and 1.84 seconds (SD = .71) at posttest.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    L2-related research provides evidence that declarative knowledge may be converted into procedural knowledge and procedural (implicit) knowledge may be converted into declarative knowledge as a result of experience.

    “L2 related research provides evidence that declarative knowledge may be converted into procedural knowledge (proceduralization of declarative knowledge) and procedural (implicit) knowledge may be converted into declarative knowledge as a result of experience [41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] S Ferman, 2014, Explicit versus Implicit Instruction: Which Is Preferable for Learning an Artificial Morphological Rule in Children?, Folia Phoniatr Logop [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Few if any studies have practically examined the effect of gesture on procedural learning for L2 syntax in classroom settings with learners of primary school age.

    “While the relationship between gesture and L2 teaching and syntax learning has been examined, few if any studies have practically examined the effect of gesture on procedural learning for L2 syntax in classroom settings with learners of primary school age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Many learners begin formal second language learning in middle childhood/primary school age.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many learners fail to master appropriate L2 use and many teachers tend to be skeptical about their grammar instruction.

    “Many learners fail to master appropriate L2 use and many teachers tend to be skeptical about their grammar instruction [44].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [44] M. Witt, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The within-participant design, comparing children in the two test conditions to themselves, controls confounding variables so they cannot influence experimental outcomes.

    “These and other confounding variables were dealt with by utilizing a within participant design, meaning that children in the two different test conditions were compared to themselves and thus cannot influence experimental outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Participant characteristics such as knowledge about L1 grammatical morphology influence individual L2 learning outcomes.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Through the procedural memory system, knowledge with a complex structure can be acquired to a large degree independently of awareness of both the process and product of acquisition.

    “Through the procedural memory system knowledge with a complex structure can be acquired to a large degree independently of awareness of both the process and product of acquisition [37].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] S Ferman, 2009, The acquisition of a linguistic skill by adults: Procedural and declarative memory interact in the learning of an artificial morphological rule, Journal of Neurolinguistics [Internet] source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The plural suffix -s and the -'s clitic marking the genitive case are important because they encode grammatical categories, are syntactically relevant, and are fully productive in that they can be attached regularly to any word of the appropriate class.

    “In summary, I argue that the plural suffix -s and the -’s clitic marking the genitive case are important because they encode grammatical categories, are syntactically relevant and are fully productive in that they can be attached regularly to any word of the appropriate class [47] (see also [28]).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [47] I. Plag, 2003 source
    • cites [28] F. Pulvermüller, 2010, Brain embodiment of syntax and grammar: Discrete combinatorial mechanisms spelt out in neuronal circuits, Brain and Language [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    MRCs are not only derived directly from linguistic input, but also from inferences made on the basis of logical, causal or pragmatic world knowledge.

    “They specify that MRCs are not only derived directly from linguistic input, but also from inferences made on the basis of logical, causal or pragmatic world knowledge [52].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] H Brouwer, 2012, Getting real about Semantic Illusions: Rethinking the functional role of the P600 in language comprehension, Brain Research [Internet] source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Priming can reveal the nature of the connection between two units or the existence of shared representations.

    “Aspects of word meanings are reflected in the topography of brain activation and priming corresponds to a transfer of activation between two lexical representations and can reveal the nature of the connection between the two units or the existence of shared representations [76].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [76] KI Forster, 1999, The Microgenesis of Priming Effects in Lexical Access, Brain and Language [Internet] source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Additional embodied semantic information can prime lexical representations.

    “This, additional embodied semantic information can in turn prime lexical representations [64].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [64] W-M Roth, 2001, Gestures: Their Role in Teaching and Learning, Review of Educational Research [Internet]. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The warm-up training sequence, in which written words were paired with gestures and then with pictures, served to familiarize children with the word-gesture pairs and to avoid children mapping the gesture for boy to unintended objects in the pictures.

    “This sequence served to familiarize children with the word-gesture pairs and to avoid children mapping the gesture for boy to unintended objects in the pictures (e.g. the t-shirt the boy was wearing) had they seen the pictures first.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The words used to create the training and testing items were appealing, easy, and generally well known, as ranked by young L2 German speakers of English in an unpublished study.

    “The words used to create the training and testing items were appealing, meaning they used words which were easy and generally well known, as ranked by young L2 German speakers of English in an unpublished study.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The syntactically specific gestures made a visual distinction between their plural and possessive meanings, while the general 's' gesture did not.

    “As previously mentioned, ‘s’ gestures in both conditions were iconic in that their form corresponded to their sound, but while the syntactically specific gestures in the upper half of Fig 2 made a visual distinction between their plural and possessive meanings, the general ‘s’ gesture in the lower half did not.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The test items were randomized in their order.

    “Because the test items were randomized in their order and the order of which experimental condition came first was counterbalanced across participants, session tests consisted of different versions of the same test [73,74].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Heyman and colleagues created a task using stimuli with only one blank space, where stimuli have only one correct completion and the missing letter is always a vowel.

    “Building on this general principle, Heyman and colleagues created a task using stimuli with only one blank space, where stimuli have only one correct completion and the missing letter is always a vowel [75].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [75] T Heyman, 2015, Using the speeded word fragment completion task to examine semantic priming., Behavior Research Methods [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A recent study investigated the influence of teacher gestures on oral fluency in a diverse group of primary school age children.

    “To shed more light on gesture and L2 learning a recent study investigated the influence of teacher gestures on oral fluency in a diverse group of primary school age children [60].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [60] N. Janzen Ulbricht, 2018, An experiment on gesture and fluency in two German schools, ELT Journal [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The order of which experimental condition came first was counterbalanced across participants.

    “Because the test items were randomized in their order and the order of which experimental condition came first was counterbalanced across participants, session tests consisted of different versions of the same test [73,74].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    It is not clear which memory system is directly involved in any given linguistic task.

    “While it is implicit knowledge which enables both L1 and L2 learners to use language productively [40], it is not clear which memory system is directly involved in any given linguistic task [23,24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [23] MW Alibali, 2013, Students learn more when their teacher has learned to gesture effectively., Gesture [Internet] source
    • cites [24] SW Cook, 2018 source

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Applied to L2 learning, declarative knowledge includes knowledge of morphology and grammar rules and is processed slowly.

    “Applied to L2 learning, declarative knowledge includes knowledge of morphology, as well as grammar rules and is processed slowly.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The syntactically specific gestures visually distinguished between their plural and possessive meanings, while the general 's' gesture did not.

    “All ‘s’ gestures were iconic in that their form corresponded to their sound, but while the syntactically specific gestures visually distinguished between their plural and possessive meanings, the general ‘s’ gesture did not.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    The gestures used to create the training and testing items were deemed intuitive by young L2 German speakers of English who viewed the gestures and marked what they thought they had seen.

    “The gestures used to create the training and testing items were deemed intuitive, as indicated by young L2 German speakers of English who viewed the gestures and marked on a list what they thought they had seen.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Procedural knowledge requires a critical amount of practice and time and is sometimes conceptualized as implicit learning.

    “Procedural knowledge requires a critical amount of practice and time and is sometimes conceptualized as implicit learning.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Implicit knowledge enables both L1 and L2 learners to use language productively.

    “While it is implicit knowledge which enables both L1 and L2 learners to use language productively [40], it is not clear which memory system is directly involved in any given linguistic task [23,24].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] J-U Keßler, 2011, Teaching grammar. Paderborn: Schöningh

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Declarative knowledge can be quickly learned, but is slower to use, necessitates more cognitive resources than procedural knowledge, and may be rapidly degraded.

    “Declarative knowledge, associated with learning and using novel events and facts can be quickly learned, but is slower to use, necessitates more cognitive resources than procedural knowledge, and may be rapidly degraded.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The 's' gestures in both conditions were iconic in that their form corresponded to their sound.

    “As previously mentioned, ‘s’ gestures in both conditions were iconic in that their form corresponded to their sound, but while the syntactically specific gestures in the upper half of Fig 2 made a visual distinction between their plural and possessive meanings, the general ‘s’ gesture in the lower half did not.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Priming corresponds to a transfer of activation between two lexical representations.

    “Aspects of word meanings are reflected in the topography of brain activation and priming corresponds to a transfer of activation between two lexical representations and can reveal the nature of the connection between the two units or the existence of shared representations [76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [76] KI Forster, 1999, The Microgenesis of Priming Effects in Lexical Access, Brain and Language [Internet] source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Session tests consisted of different versions of the same test.

    “Because the test items were randomized in their order and the order of which experimental condition came first was counterbalanced across participants, session tests consisted of different versions of the same test [73,74].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [73] N Hilger, 2017 source
    • cites [74] K Murphy, 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Procedural knowledge has been implicated in skill learning and habits.

    “Procedural knowledge, in contrast, has been implicated in skill learning and habits.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    One possibility to assess learning is to look at performance and production errors.

    “one possibility to assess learning is to look at performance and production errors [68]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [68] R. Ellis, 2012 source
    • Rests on an assumption: It is difficult to directly view the rules and structures a learner has internalized.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    All 's' gestures were iconic in that their form corresponded to their sound.

    “All ‘s’ gestures were iconic in that their form corresponded to their sound, but while the syntactically specific gestures visually distinguished between their plural and possessive meanings, the general ‘s’ gesture did not.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    When meaningful gestures are combined with new words, learners may benefit because gestures can be perceptually similar to the referenced object or event and can add semantic information.

    “When meaningful gestures are combined with new words, learners may benefit since gestures can be perceptually similar to the object or event being referenced and can thus add semantic information.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    In the test, conditions were blocked so that each child received all 32 items in randomized order, with either the syntactically specific or the syntactically general condition first.

    “Conditions were blocked, meaning that an individual child had all 32 items in randomized order with either the syntactically specific or the syntactically general condition first.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Premisecitation

    Neglecting movement as a learning strategy leaves an important source of support under-utilized.

    “The transfer of concept learning from perceiving gestures in a social setting to solving a written task is in line with research that shows that neglecting movement as a learning strategy leaves an important source of support under-utilized [80].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [80] M. Sambanis, 2020

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationown data

    These nuanced differences in how verbal information is packaged may have important implications for teaching and learning syntax.

    “Importantly, our findings suggest that for sixth-grade children, the same verbal information can be packaged in different ways and that these nuanced differences may have important implications for teaching and learning syntax.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Ferman and Karni [41] write that there is evidence that as a result of training and experience, implicit knowledge can become explicit in the sense that learners can become aware of the underlying structures and regularities (rules).

    “Ferman and Karni [41] write: “There is evidence … that as a result of training and experience, implicit knowledge can become explicit in the sense that learners can become aware of the underlying structures and regularities (rules).””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ferman and Karni [41] S Ferman, 2014, Explicit versus Implicit Instruction: Which Is Preferable for Learning an Artificial Morphological Rule in Children?, Folia Phoniatr Logop [Internet] source
56 of 56

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Implicit learning mechanisms in children are more mature than explicit ones.

    “It is known that implicit learning mechanisms in children are more mature than explicit ones and there is broad consensus that everyday use of grammar is implicit.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Everyday use of grammar is implicit.

    “It is known that implicit learning mechanisms in children are more mature than explicit ones and there is broad consensus that everyday use of grammar is implicit.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many learners begin formal second language learning in middle childhood/primary school age.

    “This research gap is unfortunate because it is here, in this setting and age group when many learners begin formal second language learning.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Participant characteristics such as knowledge about L1 grammatical morphology influence individual L2 learning outcomes.

    “In this experiment, as in others, participant characteristics, such as the role of knowledge about L1 grammatical morphology, influence individual L2 learning outcomes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Prior gesture and L2 vocabulary experiments lack the precision necessary to provide guidance on whether gestures might support learning to use grammatical morphemes in context.

    “These experiments, while crucial, lack the precision necessary to provide guidance on whether gestures might support learning to use grammatical morphemes in context or not.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In the classroom, when a teacher performs a new gesture, the semantic relationship between movement and learning content must be immediately apparent; otherwise the hand movement may not be understood and must be learned by association.

    “In the classroom when a teacher performs a new gesture, the semantic relationship between movement and learning content must be immediately apparent, otherwise the hand movement may not be understood and must be learned by association.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    It is difficult to directly view the rules and structures a learner has internalized.

    “Since it is difficult to directly view the rules and structures a learner has internalized”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In English, the sound 's' can mean different things, sometimes marking more than one and sometimes marking possession or a part-of relation.

    “After briefly explaining in German that an ‘s’ sound can ‘mean different things’ in English, (sometimes meaning more than one, and sometimes meaning that something belongs to or is a part of something else)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Gestures support L2 word learning.

    “It is well-established that gestures support L2 word learning, however research on the effect of gestures on syntax is rare.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Research on the effect of gestures on syntax is rare.

    “It is well-established that gestures support L2 word learning, however research on the effect of gestures on syntax is rare.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Hebbian mechanisms for synaptic modification explain why consolidation of learning is an important concept.

    “Hebbian mechanisms for synaptic modification explain why consolidation of learning is an important concept and insufficient consolidation could provide a rationale why learning from four lessons of instruction did not increase procedural learning for all children.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a need for more empirical work exploring student and teacher gestures in naturalistic classroom interactions, particularly for L2 teaching beyond vocabulary learning.

    “In conclusion, recent decades have witnessed an increase in interest in the roles of embodied teaching methods, but there is still a need for more empirical work that explores the results of student and teacher gestures in naturalistic classroom interactions. This is particularly the case for contexts of L2 teaching beyond investigating vocabulary learning.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The English plural {-s} and 3rd person possessive {-s} are difficult L2 morpho-syntactic structures for primary school children.

    “By combining gesture theory and research from the classroom, this paper provides evidence that gestures can promote procedural knowledge for difficult L2 morpho-syntactic structures, such as the English plural{-s} and 3rd person possessive{-s} in primary school.”
13 of 13

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Model comparison changes more than one component

    Major

    The baseline model is described as having random slopes and intercepts, while the next model has only random intercepts and adds session. That conflicts with the claim that each comparison adds only one component, which matters to the reported test of the session effect.

  • Interaction attributed to a model without an interaction term

    Minor

    The text says the mRandom_condition output shows a session-by-condition interaction, but its own model description assigns that interaction only to mRandom_interaction.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. J-U Keßler, 2011, Teaching grammar. Paderborn: Schöningh, 271
  2. M. Witt, 2018, Focus on Evidence II Netzwerke zwischen Fremdsprachendidaktik und Neurowissenschaften
  3. I Poggi, 2013, Body—Language—Communication: An International Handbook on Multimodality in Human Interaction [Internet].Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science, 1481
  4. M. Macedonia, 2020, Bewegtes Lernen—Ein Handbuch für Forschung und Praxis, 326
  5. M. Sambanis, 2020, Bewegtes Lernen—Ein Handbuch für Forschung und Praxis, 9
  6. D Bryant, 2015, Ein durchgängiges Förderkonzept: Vom außerschulischen Ferien-Theatercamp zur fachsensiblen Sprachförderung in schulischer Theater-AG., Scenario–Zeitschrift für Drama- und Theaterpädagogik in der Fremd- und Zweitsprachenvermittlung [Internet], 7

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Janzen Ulbricht, N.
ORCID
Janzen Ulbricht, Natasha
Venue
PLOS ONE
Publisher
Public Library of Science (PLoS)
Published
2023-02-01
Volume
18
Issue
2
Pages
e0280543
ISSN
1932-6203 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1371/journal.pone.0280543
PMC
PMC9891517
OpenAlex
W4318754890
Semantic Scholar
da459339038ce63daac71366a827073a60013bc7
Cited by
3
References
70
Citations by year
2025: 2 · 2024: 1
FWCI
1.42
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • PLoS ONE (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • Refubium (Universitätsbibliothek der Freien Universität Berlin) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Universitätsbibliothek der FU Berlin Hochschulschriftenstelle u. Dokumentenserver (cc-by)
Funders
  • deutsche forschungsgemeinschaft
  • freie universität berlin
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Language and Linguistics › EFL/ESL Teaching and Learning
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Hearing Impairment and Communication
Keywords
gesture, grammatical morphemes, second language acquisition, procedural learning, middle childhood, implicit learning, syntax, gesture theory
MeSH terms
Child, Gestures, Humans, Language, Language Tests, Learning, Linguistics

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-19.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-19.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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