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Cited by 45Stress Responses and CortisolPosttraumatic Stress Disorder ResearchNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior

Impact of stress on brain morphology: insights into structural biomarkers of stress-related disorders.

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Cardoner, Narcís, Andero, Raül, Cano, Marta, Marin-Blasco, Ignacio, Porta-Casteràs, Daniel, Serra-Blasco, Maria, Via, Esther, Vicent-Gil, Muriel +1 more·2024·Current Neuropharmacology
DOI 10.2174/1570159x21666230703091435PMC PMC10845094
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Abstract

Exposure to acute and chronic stress has a broad range of structural effects on the brain. The brain areas commonly targeted in the stress response models include the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex. Studies in patients suffering from the so-called stress-related disorders -embracing post-traumatic stress, major depressive and anxiety disorders- have fairly replicated animal models of stress response -particularly the neuroendocrine and the inflammatory models- by finding alterations in different brain areas, even in the early neurodevelopment. Therefore, this narrative review aims to provide an overview of structural neuroimaging findings and to discuss how these studies have contributed to our knowledge of variability in response to stress and the ulterior development of stress-related disorders. There are a gross number of studies available but neuroimaging research of stress-related disorders as a single category is still in its infancy. Although the available studies point at particular brain circuitries involved in stress and emotion regulation, the pathophysiology of these abnormalities -involving genetics, epigenetics and molecular pathways-, their relation to intraindividual stress responses -including personality characteristics, self-perception of stress conditions…-, and their potential involvement as biomarkers in diagnosis, treatment prescription and prognosis are discussed.

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  • Under conditions of intermittent reinforcement, where episodes of abuse are followed by affection or reconciliation, oxytocin release may strengthen emotional bonds, contributing to trauma bonding.

    “Under conditions of intermittent reinforcement, where episodes of abuse are followed by affection or reconciliation, oxytocin release may strengthen emotional bonds, contributing to what is often described as trauma bonding (Cardoner et al., 2024).”

    From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Cardoner et al., 2024

    The Amygdala and Hippocampus sections discuss structural effects of childhood adversity, while the Molecular Mechanisms section discusses glucocorticoids and brain structure; page numbers are unavailable in our copy. Searches for oxytocin, intermittent reinforcement, and trauma bonding found no passage addressing the proposed mechanism linking abuse and reconciliation to stronger emotional bonds. (LLM, conf=0.75)

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  • Oxytocin may paradoxically reinforce attachment in contexts of fear and unpredictability.

    “Oxytocin, typically associated with bonding, trust, and social affiliation, may paradoxically reinforce attachment in contexts of fear and unpredictability.”

    From From use to abuse: psychological, neurobiological, and spiritual pathways in relational harm and recovery (2026) · cites this paper as Cardoner et al., 2024

    The section on the neurodevelopmental brain discusses how stress and childhood adversity affect brain structures involved in threat processing, but does not link oxytocin to attachment under fear or unpredictability. Searches of our full-text copy for oxytocin, bonding, and attachment in those contexts found no passage addressing the claim; the paper is not marked as truncated. (LLM, conf=0.74)

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Authors
Cardoner, N., Andero, R., Cano, M., Marin-Blasco, I., Porta-Casteràs, D., Serra-Blasco, M., Via, E., Vicent-Gil, M., & Portella, M. J.
Affiliations
  • Institut d'Investigació Biomèdica Sant Pau (IIB SANT PAU), Hospital de la Santa Creu i Sant Pau, Barcelona, Spain
  • Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
  • Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ES)
  • Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
  • Hospital Sant Joan de Déu Barcelona (ES)
  • Hospital de Sant Pau (ES)
ORCID
Venue
Current Neuropharmacology
Publisher
Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
Published
2024-05
Volume
22
Issue
5
Pages
935-962
ISSN
1570-159X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.2174/1570159x21666230703091435
PMC
PMC10845094
OpenAlex
W4383186339
Cited by
45
References
46
Citations by year
2026: 16 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 1
FWCI
1.25
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Current Neuropharmacology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Dipòsit Digital de Documents de la UAB (Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
Network of European Funding for Neuroscience Research through the European Commission, ERA-NET Neuron JTC 2019ISCIII (AC19/00077, AC19/00088)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
Keywords
stress, brain structure, structural neuroimaging, stress-related disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, neuroendocrine stress response, neuroinflammation, structural biomarkers, epigenetics, emotion regulation, brain development
MeSH terms
Animals, Anxiety Disorders, Brain, Depressive Disorder, Major, Major Depressive Disorder, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, Biomarkers

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