Is Fast Food Addictive?

K. Garber, Andrea; H. Lustig, Robert

doi:10.2174/1874473711104030146

Cited by 143Eating Disorders and BehaviorsNutrition, Health and Food BehaviorRegulation of Appetite and Obesity

Is Fast Food Addictive?

K. Garber, Andrea, H. Lustig, Robert·2011·Current Drug Abuse Reviewse

DOI 10.2174/1874473711104030146

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Abstract

Studies of food addiction have focused on highly palatable foods. While fast food falls squarely into that category, it has several other attributes that may increase its salience. This review examines whether the nutrients present in fast food, the characteristics of fast food consumers or the presentation and packaging of fast food may encourage substance dependence, as defined by the American Psychiatric Association. The majority of fast food meals are accompanied by a soda, which increases the sugar content 10-fold. Sugar addiction, including tolerance and withdrawal, has been demonstrated in rodents but not humans. Caffeine is a "model" substance of dependence; coffee drinks are driving the recent increase in fast food sales. Limited evidence suggests that the high fat and salt content of fast food may increase addictive potential. Fast food restaurants cluster in poorer neighborhoods and obese adults eat more fast food than those who are normal weight. Obesity is characterized by resistance to insulin, leptin and other hormonal signals that would normally control appetite and limit reward. Neuroimaging studies in obese subjects provide evidence of altered reward and tolerance. Once obese, many individuals meet criteria for psychological dependence. Stress and dieting may sensitize an individual to reward. Finally, fast food advertisements, restaurants and menus all provide environmental cues that may trigger addictive overeating. While the concept of fast food addiction remains to be proven, these findings support the role of fast food as a potentially addictive substance that is most likely to create dependence in vulnerable populations.

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The human response to food is complex and influenced by palatability, availability, eating topography, visual appeal, economics, incentives, social routines, alternative reinforcement, and advertisements.
“the response to foods in humans, is far more complex, and is influenced not just by its palatability but also by its availability (the patterns of restriction plus overeating, referred to as the eating topography (16)), its visual appeal, economics and incentives (i.e., ‘super sizing’ offers, soda combos), social routines for eating, alternative reinforcement and advertisements (17).”
From Obesity and addiction: Neurobiological overlaps (2013) · cites this paper as [17]

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Food Addiction in Humans
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“In addition, we did not review the evidence on other potentially important determinants of an individual’s potential to become addicted to food, including genetic and epigenetic factors, which are outside the scope of this paper and have been reviewed elsewhere [25, 44].”
BackgroundInfluential
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Obesity and addiction: Neurobiological overlaps
Volkow, N. D., Wang, G. ‐., Tomasi, D., & Baler, R. D. (2013) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1467-789x.2012.01031.x · Cited by 800 · see citing works
“, ‘super sizing’ offers, soda combos), social routines for eating, alternative reinforcement and advertisements (17).”
Background
The toxic truth about sugar
Lustig, R. H., Schmidt, L. A., & Brindis, C. D. (2012) · Nature · doi:10.1038/482027a · Cited by 793 · see citing works
Self-citation
The nutrition transition to a stage of high obesity and noncommunicable disease prevalence dominated by ultra‐processed foods is not inevitable
Popkin, B. M., & Ng, S. W. (2021) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.13366 · Cited by 714 · see citing works
Consumption of ultra-processed food products and its effects on children's lipid profiles: A longitudinal study
Rauber, F., Campagnolo, P. D. B., Hoffman, D. J., & Vítolo, M. R. (2014) · Nutrition Metabolism and Cardiovascular Diseases · doi:10.1016/j.numecd.2014.08.001 · Cited by 489 · see citing works
Determinants of takeaway and fast food consumption: a narrative review
Janssen, H. G., Davies, I. G., Richardson, L. D., & Stevenson, L. (2017) · Nutrition Research Reviews · doi:10.1017/s0954422417000178 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
“lets and menus provide environmental cues that can influence desirability((171)).”
Fructose: It’s “Alcohol Without the Buzz”
Lustig, R. H. (2013) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.3945/an.112.002998 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
“We have examined the content of the “fast food” meal as it relates to addiction; of the various components, fat and salt increase the salience of the food, but only sugar and caffeine exhibit true dependence (91).”
Background
Divergent neural substrates of inhibitory control in binge eating disorder relative to other manifestations of obesity
Balodis, I. M., Molina, N. D., Hedy Kober, A., Worhunsky, P. D., White, M. A., Sinha, R., Grilo, C. M., & Potenza, M. N. (2013) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.20068 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
“05], or to congruent stimuli [F(2,17)1⁄40.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Monetary Reward Processing in Obese Individuals With and Without Binge Eating Disorder
Balodis, I. M., Hedy Kober, A., Worhunsky, P. D., White, M. A., Stevens, M. C. G., Pearlson, G. D., Sinha, R., Grilo, C. M., & Potenza, M. N. (2013) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.01.014 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Unhealthy diets, obesity and time discounting: a systematic literature review and network analysis
Barlow, P. L., Reeves, A., McKee, M., Galea, G., & Stückler, D. (2016) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12431 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“For example, unhealthy diets rich in sugary foods could increase discount rates, for example, by reducing the sensitivity of the brain’s reward centre (17,65,66).”
Background
Hyper‐Palatable Foods: Development of a Quantitative Definition and Application to the US Food System Database
Fazzino, T. L., Rohde, K., & Sullivan, D. K. (2019) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.22639 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“However, operational definitions have varied substantially and focused on food categories like fast foods or fried foods (8,9) or sweets and desserts (10), while others have identified a variety of specific foods (11,12) or provided no operational definition (13).”
Background
Nutritional psychiatry research: an emerging discipline and its intersection with global urbanization, environmental challenges and the evolutionary mismatch
Logan, A., & Jacka, F. (2014) · Journal of Physiological Anthropology · doi:10.1186/1880-6805-33-22 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
“The results of epidemiological and experimental research suggest that it is the highly palatable combination of sugar, fat and sodium that plays a key role in the attractiveness of such foods [140-142].”
Background
Effects of a mindfulness‐based weight loss intervention in adults with obesity: A randomized clinical trial
Daubenmier, J., Moran, P. J., Kristeller, J., Acree, M., Bacchetti, P., Kemeny, M. E., Dallman, M., Lustig, R. H., Grunfeld, C., Nixon, D. F., et al. (2016) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.21396 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Self-citation
Ultraprocessed Food: Addictive, Toxic, and Ready for Regulation
Lustig, R. H. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu12113401 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Ultra-processed food consumption, socio-demographics and diet quality in Australian adults
Marchese, L. E., Livingstone, K. M., Woods, J., Wingrove, K., & Machado, P. (2021) · Public Health Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s1368980021003967 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Evolutionary and neuropsychological perspectives on addictive behaviors and addictive substances: relevance to the "food addiction" construct
Davis, C. A. (2014) · Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation · doi:10.2147/sar.s56835 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
“66 The most problematic sugar seems to be fructose, which has increased globally, at least threefold in the last century.”
Sex Differences in Behavioral Dyscontrol: Role in Drug Addiction and Novel Treatments
Carroll, M. E., & Smethells, J. R. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2015.00175 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Intestinal microbiota, probiotics and mental health: from Metchnikoff to modern advances: part III – convergence toward clinical trials
Bested, A. C., Logan, A. C., & Selhub, E. M. (2013) · Gut Pathogens · doi:10.1186/1757-4749-5-4 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“On the other hand, psychological stress itself leads to dysbiosis [4,5], and it also encourages the consumption of a fast-food-style diet [6], which only serves to further promote dysbiosis [7].”
Background
Current Status of Evidence for a New Diagnosis: Food Addiction-A Literature Review
Vasiliu, O. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.824936 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
“Fast food advertisement provide environmental cues that may trigger addictive overeating, and another important aspect is that obese patients tend to eat more fast food than general population (26).”
BackgroundInfluential
Density and Proximity of Fast Food Restaurants and Body Mass Index Among African Americans
Reitzel, L. R., Regan, S. D., Nguyen, N. T., Cromley, E. K., Strong, L. L., Wetter, D. W., & McNeill, L. H. (2013) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2012.301140 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Perhaps the greater number of FFRs functioned as a cue for the craving of caloriedense foods among those who tend to patronize FFRs.31 The potential for a biologically and psychologically based addiction to fast foods as fueling the obesity epidemic was explored in previous literature, with suggestions that obese indi…”
Influential
Dysbiotic drift: mental health, environmental grey space, and microbiota
Logan, A. C. (2015) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-015-0061-7 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“However, because the Westernized dietary pattern is highly palatable, it may attenuate stress and provide a form of ‘self-medication’ [98-100]; indeed, when animals are withdrawn from a cafeteria diet, there are changes in gene expression governing stress physiology [101].”
Background
The Metabolic Ghetto
Wells, J. C. K. (2016) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511972959 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Absolute and relative densities of fast-food versus other restaurants in relation to weight status: Does restaurant mix matter?
Polsky, J. Y., Moineddin, R., Dunn, J. R., Glazier, R. H., & Booth, G. L. (2015) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.11.008 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Dental health in persons with disability
Devinsky, O., Boyce, D. M., Robbins, M. R., & Pressler, M. (2020) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2020.107174 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Natural environments, ancestral diets, and microbial ecology: is there a modern “paleo-deficit disorder”? Part I
Logan, A. C., Katzman, M. A., & Balanzá‐Martínez, V. (2015) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-015-0041-y · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Clinical Nutrition Education of Doctors and Medical Students: Solving the Catch 22
Blunt, S. B., & Kafatos, A. (2018) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmy082 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Much of this food is unhealthy, tastily tempting, quite possibly “addictive,” and often cheaper than healthier options (6, 7, 30), thus providing additional appeal to the poor (31).”
Background
The Cambridge Handbook of Substance and Behavioral Addictions
Sussman, S. Y. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Obesity as malnutrition: the dimensions beyond energy balance
Wells, J. C. K. (2013) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/ejcn.2013.31 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Disordered Eating among People with Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review
Sankaranarayanan, A., Johnson, K., Mammen, S. J., Wilding, H., Vasani, D., Murali, V., Mitchison, D., Castle, D. J., & Hay, P. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13113820 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
“This can, in turn, have “high addictive potential” and reinforce further disordered eating behaviors [90].”
Background
The Western diet: a blind spot of eating disorder research?—a narrative review and recommendations for treatment and research
Ayton, A. K., & Ibrahim, A. (2019) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuz089 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
“The potentially metabolically harmful ingredients, such as high sugar content and additives, in ultra-processed foods have been added without informing the consumers.(160) Some of these effects are known (as discussed above), but others are yet to be discovered.”
Background
Behavioral Economic Considerations of Novel Addictions and Nonaddictive Behavior: Research and Analytic Methods
Reed, D. D., Naudé, G. P., Gelino, B. W., & Amlung, M. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.011 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Stress in Obesity and Associated Metabolic and Cardiovascular Disorders
Holvoet, P. (2012) · Scientifica · doi:10.6064/2012/205027 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“While the concept of fast food addiction remains to be proven, some �ndings support the role of fast food as a potentially addictive substance, which is most likely to create dependence in vulnerable populations [95].”
Background
Effects of addictive-like eating behaviors on weight loss with behavioral obesity treatment
Chao, A. M., Wadden, T. A., Tronieri, J. S., Pearl, R. L., Alamuddin, N., Bakizada, Z. M., Pinkasavage, E., Leonard, S. M., Alfaris, N., & Berkowitz, R. I. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-018-9958-z · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Effects of Sugar-Sweetened Beverages on Children
Bremer, A. A., & Lustig, R. H. (2012) · Pediatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00904481-20111209-09 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
The Prevention and Treatment of Gambling Disorders: Some Art, Some Science
Derevensky, J. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.024 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Considering the Overlap and Nonoverlap of Compulsivity, Impulsivity, and Addiction
Blum, A. W., & Grant, J. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.038 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Neurobiological Foundations of Behavioral Addictions
Vaccaro, A. G., & Potenza, M. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.016 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Neurobiology of Substance Addictions
Christie, N. C., & Bechara, A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.015 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Sensitization of Incentive Salience and the Transition to Addiction
Warlow, S. M., Baumgartner, H. M., Freeland, C. M., Naffziger, E. E., Olney, J. J., Berridge, K. C., & Robinson, M. J. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.006 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Ultra-processed food consumption, socio-demographics and diet quality in Australian adults
Marchese, L., Livingstone, K. M., Woods, J., Wingrove, K., & Machado, P. P. (2022) · Deakin Research Online (Deakin University) · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Mindfulness-Based Interventions Applied to Addiction Treatments
Kechter, A., & Black, D. S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.040 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Multiple Memory Systems, Addiction, and Health Habits: New Routes for Translational Science
Stacy, A. W., Pike, J. R., & Lee, A. Y. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.017 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Tanning as an Addiction: The State of the Research and Implications for Intervention
Miller, K. A., & Mays, D. M. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.037 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Food versus Eating Addictions
Schulte, E. M., Schiestl, E. T., & Gearhardt, A. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.035 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Behavioral Economics and Addictive Disorders
Jarmolowicz, D. P., & Schneider, T. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.005 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Prevention and Treatment of Compulsive Buying Disorder
Galimov, A., & Black, D. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.027 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Precision Behavioral Management (PBM): A Novel Genetically Guided Therapy to Combat Reward Deficiency Syndrome (RDS) Relevant to the Opiate Crisis
Blum, K., Roy, A. K., Podesta, A., Modestino, E. J., Steinberg, B., Gondré-Lewis, M. C., Baron, D. A., Thanos, P. K., Lott, L., Badgaiyan, S., et al. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.031 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Prevention and Treatment of “Food Addiction”
Davis, C., & Mason, A. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.023 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Human Neurobiological Approaches to Hedonically Motivated Behaviors
Burger, K. S., Shearrer, G. E., & Sadler, J. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.009 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Feedback Models for Gambling Control: The Use and Efficacy of Online Responsible Gambling Tools
Griffiths, M. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.034 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Heritability of high sugar consumption through drinks and the genetic correlation with substance use
Treur, J. L., Boomsma, D. I., Ligthart, L., Willemsen, G. A. H. M., & Vink, J. M. (2016) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.127324 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Natural environments, ancestral diets, and microbial ecology: is there a modern “paleo-deficit disorder”? Part II
Logan, A. C., Katzman, M. A., & Balanzá‐Martínez, V. (2015) · Journal of PHYSIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY · doi:10.1186/s40101-014-0040-4 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“The preponderance of epidemiological and experimental research indicates that the highly palatable addition or relative magnification of sugar, fat, and/or sodium contributes to the attractiveness of the contemporary ultra-processed diet [58-62].”
Background
One-Pot Multienzyme Synthesis of Rare Ketoses from Glycerol
Li, Z., Li, F., Cai, L., Chen, Z., Qin, L., & Gao, X. (2020) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.9b06748 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Consumption of thylakoid-rich spinach extract reduces hunger, increases satiety and reduces cravings for palatable food in overweight women
Stenblom, E.-L., Egecioglu, E., Landin‐Olsson, M., & Erlanson‐Albertsson, C. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.051 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“It has been suggested that individuals who are obese, dieting and/or under stress are more susceptible to hedonic eating (Garber & Lustig, 2011).”
An Evaluation of the Italian Version of the Yale Food Addiction Scale in Obese Adult Inpatients Engaged in a 1-Month-Weight-Loss Treatment
Ceccarini, M., Manzoni, G. M., Castelnuovo, G., & Molinari, E. (2015) · Journal of Medicinal Food · doi:10.1089/jmf.2014.0188 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Neighborhood food environment role in modifying psychosocial stress–diet relationships
Zenk, S. N., Schulz, A. J., Izumi, B. T., Mentz, G. B., Israel, B. A., & Lockett, M. (2013) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013.02.008 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“They may also serve as environmental cues that elicit eating under stress (Cohen & Farley, 2008; Garber & Lustig, 2011).”
Background
The Relationship Between Food Craving, Appetite-Related Hormones and Clinical Parameters in Bipolar Disorder
Platzer, M., Fellendorf, F. T., Bengesser, S., Birner, A., Dalkner, N., Hamm, C., Lenger, M., Maget, A., Pilz, R., Queissner, R., et al. (2020) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13010076 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“It has been proposed that these attributes generate a “refined food addiction” that is associated with higher frequency of craving [59].”
Background
Ketogenic Diet Decreases Alcohol Intake in Adult Male Mice
Blanco-Gandía, M. C., Ródenas-González, F., Pascual, M., Reguilón, M. D., Guerri, C., Miñarro, J., & Rodríguez‐Arias, M. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13072167 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Dietary Sodium Suppresses Digestive Efficiency via the Renin-Angiotensin System
Weidemann, B. J., Voong, S., Morales-Santiago, F. I., Kahn, M. Z., Ni, J., Littlejohn, N. K., Claflin, K. E., Burnett, C. M.-L., Pearson, N. A., Lutter, M. L., et al. (2015) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep11123 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Mindful Eating and Mindless Eating: The Science and the Practice
Kristeller, J. L., & Epel, E. S. (2014) · doi:10.1002/9781118294895.ch47 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
A new biomarker of hedonic eating? A preliminary investigation of cortisol and nausea responses to acute opioid blockade
Daubenmier, J. J., Lustig, R. H., Hecht, F. M., Kristeller, J. L., Woolley, J. D., Adam, T. C., Dallman, M. F., & Epel, E. S. (2013) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2013.11.014 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Our findings are consistent with the theory that carbohydrate-rich sugary rather than fatty foods have addictive properties mediated by the opioid system (Garber & Lustig, 2011).”
Association between ultra-processed foods intake with lipid profile: a cross-sectional study
Nouri, M., Eskandarzadeh, S., Makhtoomi, M., Rajabzadeh-Dehkordi, M., Omidbeigi, N., Najafi, M., & Faghih, S. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-34451-x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Obesity, Metabolic Syndrome and Disorders of Energy Balance
Han, J. C., & Weiss, R. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-62520-3.00024-5 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Common Neural Mechanisms of Palatable Food Intake and Drug Abuse: Knowledge Obtained with Animal Models
Blanco-Gandía, M. C., Miñarro, J., & Rodríguez‐Arias, M. (2020) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/1381612826666200213123608 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Nutrition and Mental Well-Being: Exploring Connections and Holistic Approaches
Gheonea, T. C., Oancea, C. N., Mititelu, M., Lupu, C. E., Ioniță-Mîndrican, C.-B., & Rogoveanu, I. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12227180 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
[The nutrition transition and the double burden of malnutrition: changes in dietary patterns 1961-2009 in the Mexican socioeconomic context].
Moreno-Altamirano, L., Hernández-Montoya, D., Silberman, M. S., Capraro, S., García-García, J. J., Soto-Estrada, G., & Bosch, E. S. (2014) · PubMed · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Effects of different sweeteners on behavior and neurotransmitters release in mice
Yin, K., Xie, D., Zhao, L., Fan, G., Ren, J., Zhang, L., & Pan, S. (2019) · Journal of Food Science and Technology · doi:10.1007/s13197-019-04036-6 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Dietary Behaviour in Children, Adolescents and Families: The Eating Habits Questionnaire (EHQ)
Pala, V. M., Reisch, L. A., & Lissner, L. (2018) · Springer series on epidemiology and public health · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-98857-3_6 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
History of child maltreatment and excessive dietary and screen time behaviors in young adults: Results from a nationally representative study
Cammack, A. L., Gazmararian, J. A., & Suglia, S. F. (2020) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2020.106176 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Cigarettes Become a Dangerous Product: Tobacco in the Rearview Mirror, 1952–1965
Dorfman, L. E., Cheyne, A., Gottlieb, M. A., Mejia, P., Nixon, L., Friedman, L. C., & Daynard, R. A. (2013) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2013.301475 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Associations among affect, diet, and activity and binge-eating severity using ecological momentary assessment in a non-clinical sample of middle-aged fathers
Mason, T. B., Do, B., Chu, D., Belcher, B. R., Dunton, G. F., & Lopez, N. V. (2021) · Eating and Weight Disorders - Studies on Anorexia Bulimia and Obesity · doi:10.1007/s40519-021-01191-8 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Sugar Habit Hacker: Initial evidence that a planning intervention reduces sugar intake
Brittain, M., Consedine, N. S., Bagot, K. L., Booth, N., & Rodda, S. N. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2021.00054 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The rapid rise of ultra-processed foods brings up human health concerns
Zhang, L., Jiang, L., Liu, C., Wu, J., Li, Z., & Wang, J. (2025) · Journal of Future Foods · doi:10.1016/j.jfutfo.2025.08.013 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Food Packaged with Toys: An Investigation on Potential Obesogenic Effects in Indian Children
Gregori, D., Gulati, A., Hochdorn, A., Ballali, S., Paramesh, H., Kumar, M., & Baldi, I. (2014) · The Indian Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s12098-014-1448-x · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Principal predictors of major adverse limb events in diabetic peripheral artery disease: A narrative review
Biscetti, F., Cecchini, A. L., Rando, M. M., Nardella, E., Gasbarrini, A., Massetti, M., & Flex, A. (2021) · Atherosclerosis Plus · doi:10.1016/j.athplu.2021.10.003 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
“easily offers availability, attraction and addiction [13,14] to highly palatable, cheap and low quality junk food, with a preannounced”
Background
Caffeine increases alcohol self-administration, an effect that is independent of dopamine D2 receptor function
Holstein, S. E., Barkell, G. A., & Young, M. R. (2021) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2020.12.004 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Prevalence of Fast Food Intake among a Multi-Ethnic Population of Young Men and Its Connection with Sociodemographic Determinants and Obesity
ALTAMIMI, J. Z., Alshwaiyat, N. M., Alkhalidy, H., AlFaris, N. A., AlKehayez, N. M., Alsemari, M. A., & Alagal, R. I. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192214933 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Obesity is usually connected with dietary patterns characterized by food cravings [51].”
Background
ACTonFOOD: opportunities of ACT to address food addiction
Cattivelli, R., Pietrabissa, G., Ceccarini, M., Spatola, C. A. M., Villa, V., Caretti, A., Gatti, A., Manzoni, G. M., & Castelnuovo, G. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00396 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“Palatable food can activate the brain reward system through fast input sensors and post-binging outcomes, which results in higher glucose levels in the brain and the blood (Garber and Lustig, 2011).”
Background
Appetitive Needs and Addiction
Sussman, S. Y., & Pakdaman, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.004 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Caffeine increases liking and consumption of novel-flavored yogurt
Panek-Shirley, L. M., Swoboda, C. M., Bendlin, A., & Temple, J. L. (2013) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-013-2971-6 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“The purpose of exogenous caffeine in soda and energy drinks is unknown, but many have speculated that it enhances hedonic and reinforcing effects of beverages with which it is paired, which increases consumption and sales of those beverages (Garber and Lustig 2011; Griffith and Vernotica 2009).”
Background
[Type 2 Diabetes and Dietary Patterns 1961 to 2009: Some Social Determinants in Mexico].
Moreno-Altamirano, L., Silberman, M. S., Hernández-Montoya, D., Capraro, S., Soto-Estrada, G., García-García, J. J., & Bosch, E. S. (2015) · PubMed · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Relationship Between Sugar-Sweetened Beverages, Takeaway Dietary Pattern, and Psychological and Behavioral Problems Among Children and Adolescents in China
Zhang, Y., Wu, X., Wang, Q., Zong, Q., Wang, R., Li, T., Tao, S., & Tao, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.573168 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Unhealthy home food availability increased takeaway diet pattern, further influencing the consumption of SSBs (68).”
Background
Dietary patterns, overweight and obesity from 1961 to 2011 in the socioeconomic and political context of Argentina
Silberman, M. S., Moreno-Altamirano, L., Hernández-Montoya, D., Capraro, S., García-García, J. J., & Soto-Estrada, G. (2016) · International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/09637486.2016.1221384 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In addition, sugar alters the hunger–satiety cycle, producing dependency and provoking homeostatic problems in the body (Garber & Lustig 2011).”
Background
Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and disorders of energy balance
Weiss, R., & Lustig, R. H. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4557-4858-7.00031-7 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Are Eating Disorders Addictions?
Brewerton, T. D. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-45378-6_13 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Eating ourselves to death: How food is a drug and what food abuse costs
Robinson, M. B. (2022) · Drug Science Policy and Law · doi:10.1177/20503245221112577 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The science against sugar, alone, is insufficient in tackling the obesity and type 2 diabetes crises – We must also overcome opposition from vested interests
Malhotra, A., Schofield, G., & Lustig, R. H. (2018) · Journal of Metabolic Health · doi:10.4102/jir.v3i1.39 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Qualitative Approaches to the Study of Substance and Behavioral Addictions
Simpson, K. A., & Bluthenthal, R. N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.013 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The Role of High Salt Intake in the Development and Progression of Diverse Diseases
Kompanowska‐Jezierska, E., & Olszynski, K. H. (2018) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-811442-1.00013-4 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Fast Food Intake, Emotional and Behavioral Problems among Adolescents with Overweight and Obese Problems Participating in MyBFF@school Intervention Program
Ishak, Z., Fin, L. S., Ibrahim, W. A. H. W., Zain, F. M., Yahya, A., Selamat, R., Jalaludin, M. Y., & Mokhtar, A. H. (2022) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440221086604 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The high fat and salt content in fast food may cause it to become potentially addictive (Garber & Lustig, 2011).”
BackgroundInfluential
Consumption of ultraprocessed food is associated with higher blood pressure among 6-year-old children from southern Brazil
Valmórbida, J. L., Baratto, P. S., Leffa, P. D. S., Sangalli, C. N., da Silva, J. A., & Vítolo, M. R. (2023) · Nutrition Research · doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2023.05.012 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Does Sugar Addiction Really Cause Obesity?
Peters, A. (2012) · Frontiers in Neuroenergetics · doi:10.3389/fnene.2011.00011 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Substance and Behavioral Addictions Assessment Instruments
Grigsby, T. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.012 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Snacking and anxiety during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic: A prospective cohort study
Curtin, E. L., Johnson, L., Salway, R., & Hinton, E. C. (2023) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2023.106491 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“…snacks not sweet snacks (Paans et al., 2019; Sadler et al., 2021), therefore it could be that such traits exert a more potent effect on foods high in salt that have addictive properties (Garber & Lustig, 2011), a pattern that could not be ascertained through our measure of overall snacking.”
Effect of short-term intake of high- and low-concentrations of sucrose solution on the neurochemistry of male and female mice
Ren, J., Yin, K., Fan, G., Xiao, L., Zhao, L., Li, Z., Zhang, L., Xie, D., Pan, S., & Yuan, F. (2020) · Food & Function · doi:10.1039/d0fo02214d · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The battle over “food addiction”
Lustig, R. H. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1621742 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Fast food contains four components whose hedonic properties have been examined: salt, fat, caffeine, and sugar (48).”
Endocrine hypertension: What is new?
Koch, C. A. (2012) · Revista Portuguesa de Endocrinologia Diabetes e Metabolismo · doi:10.1016/s1646-3439(12)70010-x · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Are sweetened drinks a gateway to alcohol, opiate and stimulant addiction? Summary of evidence and therapeutic strategies
de Silva, P. N. (2019) · Medical Hypotheses · doi:10.1016/j.mehy.2019.109469 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Prevention and Treatment of Sex Addiction
Reid, R. C., Grubbs, J. B., & Kraus, S. W. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108632591.025 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Effect of Low Glycemic Index Stevia-Benefiber Sweetener on the Physical, Textural and Sensory Qualities of Oatmeal Raisin Cookies
Bukolt, K. F., Ramírez, N. C., Saenz, A., Mirza, K., Bhaduri, S., & Navder, K. P. (2019) · doi:10.35248/2157-7110.19.10.804 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Perceived food palatability, blood glucose level and future discounting: Lack of evidence for blood glucose level’s impact on reward discounting
Muda, R., Sawicki, P., & Ginszt, M. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0255484 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“On the deeper level, such a food rather does not produce crave to eat it once again or will not lead to overeating (in contrast to fast foods that might create addiction [32]).”
Background

Authors: K. Garber, A., & H. Lustig, R.
Venue: Current Drug Abuse Reviewse
Publisher: Bentham Science Publishers Ltd.
Published: 2011-09-01
Volume: 4
Issue: 3
Pages: 146-162
ISSN: 1874-4737 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.2174/1874473711104030146
OpenAlex: W2092089565
Cited by: 143
References: 185
Citations by year: 2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 3 · 2016: 9 · 2015: 9 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 6
FWCI: 10.35
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Current Drug Abuse Reviews (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Center for Research Resources (UL1RR024131)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Keywords: food addiction, sugar addiction, caffeine dependence, obesity, insulin resistance, leptin resistance, food advertising, environmental cues, stress, dieting, highly palatable food, substance dependence
MeSH terms: Animals, Caffeine, Cues, Diet, Reducing, Dietary Fats, Humans, Stress, Psychological, Behavior, Addictive, Sodium Chloride, Dietary, Dietary Sucrose, Substance-Related Disorders, Fast Foods

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Is Fast Food Addictive?

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