The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Gestational Diabetes and the Incidence of Type 2 Diabetes
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE—To examine factors associated with variation in the risk for type 2 diabetes in women with prior gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS—We conducted a systematic literature review of articles published between January 1965 and August 2001, in which subjects underwent testing for GDM and then testing for type 2 diabetes after delivery. We abstracted diagnostic criteria for GDM and type 2 diabetes, cumulative incidence of type 2 diabetes, and factors that predicted incidence of type 2 diabetes. RESULTS—A total of 28 studies were examined. After the index pregnancy, the cumulative incidence of diabetes ranged from 2.6% to over 70% in studies that examined women 6 weeks postpartum to 28 years postpartum. Differences in rates of progression between ethnic groups was reduced by adjustment for various lengths of follow-up and testing rates, so that women appeared to progress to type 2 diabetes at similar rates after a diagnosis of GDM. Cumulative incidence of type 2 diabetes increased markedly in the first 5 years after delivery and appeared to plateau after 10 years. An elevated fasting glucose level during pregnancy was the risk factor most commonly associated with future risk of type 2 diabetes. CONCLUSIONS—Conversion of GDM to type 2 diabetes varies with the length of follow-up and cohort retention. Adjustment for these differences reveals rapid increases in the cumulative incidence occurring in the first 5 years after delivery for different racial groups. Targeting women with elevated fasting glucose levels during pregnancy may prove to have the greatest effect for the effort required.
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“The risk factors for the progression to type 2 diabetes mellitus include maternal age, family history of diabetes, glycemic indices during pregnancy, and genetic predisposition, which are not modifiable after delivery [10,46].”
From Gestational Diabetes Mellitus: Diagnostic Approaches and Maternal-Offspring Complications (2022) · cites this paper as [10]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“GDM is often indicative of underlying b -cell dysfunction (200), which confers marked increased risk for later development of diabetes, generally but not always type 2 diabetes, in the mother after delivery (201,202).”
From 2. Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes: Standards of Care in Diabetes—2024 (2024) · cites this paper as [202]
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In the citing paper
“GDM is often indicative of underlying b-cell dysfunction (182), which confers marked increased risk for later development of glucose intolerance and diabetes in the mother after delivery (183-185).”
From 2. Diagnosis and classification of diabetes: standards of care in diabetes-2025 (2025) · cites this paper as [184]
In the citing paper
“It has been well documented and generally accepted that women found to have GDM are at high risk for development of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in subsequent years.1,8,9”
From Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (2019) · cites this paper as [8]
In the citing paper
“because women with GDM are at a considerably increased risk of developing diabetes later (179)”
From Guidelines and recommendations for laboratory analysis in the diagnosis and management of diabetes mellitus (2011) · cites this paper as [179]
In the citing paper
“For comparison, women with gestational diabetes have been suggested to have a 20%–60% risk of developing diabetes 5 to 10 years after pregnancy.20–22”
From Prediabetes: a high-risk state for diabetes development (2012) · cites this paper as [20]
In the citing paper
“Interestingly, long-term follow-up studies show that 70% of women who are diabetic during pregnancy develop type 2 diabetes later in life, emphasizing that the ability of β-cells to successfully adapt to increases in metabolic load is a common theme for preventing both gestational diabetes and type 2 diabetes [42].”
From Expansion of β-cell mass in response to pregnancy (2010) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“Interestingly, long-term follow-up studies show that 70% of women who are diabetic during pregnancy develop type 2 diabetes later in life, emphasizing that the ability of β-cells to successfully adapt to increases in metabolic load is a common theme for preventing both gestational diabetes and type 2 diabetes [42].”
From Expansion of β-cell mass in response to pregnancy (2010) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“However, as with obese individuals, when compensatory β-cell mass expansion fails during gestation, diabetes results.”
From Expansion of β-cell mass in response to pregnancy (2010) · cites this paper as [42]
In the citing paper
“Because women with a history of GDM have a greatly increased subsequent risk for diabetes (25), they should be screened for diabetes 6–12 weeks postpartum, using nonpregnant OGTT criteria, and should be followed up with subsequent screening for the development of diabetes or pre-diabetes, as outlined in Section II.”
From Standards of Medical Care in Diabetes—2009 (2009) · cites this paper as [25]
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Metadata
- Authors
- Kim, C., Newton, K. M., & Knopp, R. H.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Group Health Cooperative (US)
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Diabetes Care
- Publisher
- American Diabetes Association
- Published
- 2002-10-01
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 1862-1868
- ISSN
- 0149-5992 (ISSN-L)
- 1935-5548
- OpenAlex
- W2021441410
- Cited by
- 2,276
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 63 · 2025: 75 · 2024: 95 · 2023: 75 · 2022: 116 · 2021: 120 · 2020: 133 · 2019: 126 · 2018: 140 · 2017: 205 · 2016: 137 · 2015: 139 · 2014: 133 · 2013: 101 · 2012: 110
- FWCI
- 4.31
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Diabetes Care (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Obstetrics and Gynecology › Gestational Diabetes Research and Management
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes, Cardiovascular Risks, and Lipoproteins
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diabetes Management and Research
- Keywords
- gestational diabetes mellitus, type 2 diabetes, cumulative incidence, risk factors, fasting blood glucose, ethnic differences, racial disparities, follow-up duration, cohort retention
- MeSH terms
- Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Pregnancy, Time Factors, Incidence, Diabetes, Gestational, Delivery, Obstetric, PubMed
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