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Evaluation of a Resilience Intervention to Enhance Coping Strategies and Protective Factors and Decrease Symptomatology
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: In this pilot study, the authors examined the effectiveness of a 4-week resilience intervention to enhance resilience, coping strategies, and protective factors, as well as decrease symptomatology during a period of increased academic stress. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: College students were randomly assigned to experimental (n = 30) and wait-list control (n = 27) groups. The experimental group received a psychoeducational intervention in 4 two-hour weekly sessions. Measures of resilience, coping strategies, protective factors, and symptomatology were administered pre- and postintervention to both groups. RESULTS: Analyses indicated that the experimental group had significantly higher resilience scores, more effective coping strategies (i.e., higher problem solving, lower avoidant), higher scores on protective factors (i.e., positive affect, self-esteem, self-leadership), and lower scores on symptomatology (i.e., depressive symptoms, negative affect, perceived stress) postintervention than did the wait-list control group. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that this resilience program may be useful as a stress-management and stress-prevention intervention for college students.
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“Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) interventions [8–11], as well as mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches [12, 13], have produced efficacious results in college settings.”
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Resilience in the Context of Chronic Stress and Health in Adults
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Resilience amid Academic Stress: The Moderating Impact of Social Support among Social Work Students
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“Academic stress is a risk factor that may lead social work students to negative health outcomes, particularly psychological distress (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008).”
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Prevention and early intervention to improve mental health in higher education students: A review
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“during a period of increased academic stress in US students.(49) Post-intervention, participants in the intervention group had lower symptoms than a waitlist control group.”
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“…2 hourly weekly sessions plus homework Psychoeducation program including settling in Australia, making friends, being proactive, cognitive restructuring Steinhardt and Dolbier (2008) Not specified Transforming lives through resilience education Face to face 4 × 2 hour sessions Psychoeducation…”
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Journal of Counselor Preparation and Supervision
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“A previous study has demonstrated that the experimental group of college students in a 4-week resilience education program showed significantly higher resilience scores and more effective coping strategies, compared with control group [60].”
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Meta-analytic evaluation of stress reduction interventions for undergraduate and graduate students.
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Resilience Among Patients Across the Cancer Continuum
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“…period) Small group Somers (1991)100 90 undergraduates and graduates Quasiexperimental Cognitive-behavioral (SP) 6, 1-hour sessions Small group Steinhardt and Dolbier (2008)111 64 mixed undergraduates and graduates Random Cognitive-behavioral (SP) 4, 2-hour sessions Small group Swafford…”
BackgroundRosenberg, A. R., Yi-Frazier, J. P., Eaton, L., Wharton, C., Cochrane, K., Pihoker, C., Baker, K. S., & McCauley, E. (2015) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsv004 · Cited by 179
“(Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008) To further aid skills development, participants were given “cheat sheets” or handouts describing each skill and how to practice the techniques.”
BackgroundDevelopment and initial validation of the Response to Stressful Experiences Scale.
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“Past research on intervention (Cohn & Fredrickson, 2010; Langeland, Wahl, Kristoffersen, & Hanestad, 2007; Seligman, Rashid, & Parks, 2006; Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008) has indicated that the resilience of students could be enhanced by combining various constructs.”
BackgroundExamining Characteristics of Resilience among University Students: An International Study
Pidgeon, A. M., Rowe, N. F., Stapleton, P., Magyar, H. B., & Lo, B. C. Y. (2014) · Open Journal of Social Sciences · doi:10.4236/jss.2014.211003 · Cited by 208
“With statistics showing such high prevalence of psychological distress among the university population, interventions aimed to lower distress are increasing [48].”
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Psychological interventions to foster resilience in healthcare students
Kunzler, A. M., Helmreich, I., König, J., Chmitorz, A., Wessa, M., Binder, H., & Lieb, K. (2020) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013684 · Cited by 177
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“professionals [36], managers [28,33], students [31,37], sol-”
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“The resulting disengagement coping index (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008) demonstrates adequate internal consistency for the current sample (α = 0.73–0.78).”
BackgroundInfluentialResilience and HIV: a review of the definition and study of resilience
Dulin, A., Dale, S. K., Earnshaw, V. A., Fava, J. L., Mugavero, M. J., Napravnik, S., Hogan, J. W., Carey, M. P., & Howe, C. J. (2018) · AIDS Care · doi:10.1080/09540121.2018.1515470 · Cited by 178
“…and are potentially more malleable to intervention than some of the aforementioned adversities at the individual, interpersonal, and neighborhood levels (Dale, Grimes, Miller, Ursillo, & Drainoni, 2016; De Santis et al., 2013; Kent, Davis, Stark, & Stewart, 2011; Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008).”
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“…treatment approaches that endeavor to bolster positive adaptation, such as well-being therapy (Fava and Tomba, 2009), hardiness training (Maddi, 2007), and psychoeducational resilience enhancement (Steinhardt and Dolbier, 2008) have been shown to enhance coping strategies andpromote resilience.”
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Fostering Resilience: A Necessary Skill for Teacher Retention
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Stress management interventions for college students: A systematic review and meta-analysis.
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“Studies have shown that interventions can be designed to increase individuals’ use of adaptive coping strategies [62,63].”
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Resilience and psychosocial outcomes in parents of children with cancer
Rosenberg, A. R., Wolfe, J., Bradford, M. C., Shaffer, M. L., Yi-Frazier, J. P., Curtis, J. R., Syrjala, K. L., & Baker, K. S. (2014) · Pediatric Blood & Cancer · doi:10.1002/pbc.24854 · Cited by 143
“Furthermore, studies have suggested that resilience resources measured by the CD-RISC can be taught and promoted, leading to more effective stress management, coping strategies and, in turn, more positive psychosocial outcomes [10].”
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“…body of research on characteristics associated with resilience, including (a) hardiness, challenge, commitment, and control (McCarthy et al., 2006; Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008); (b) positive emotions and acceptance of change (Fredrickson, 2001; Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004); and (c) spirituality and…”
BackgroundMethodStress, self-compassion, and well-being during the transition to college
Kroshus, E., Hawrilenko, M., & Browning, A. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2020.113514 · Cited by 142
The influence of short-term adventure-based experiences on levels of resilience
Ewert, A., & Yoshino, A. (2011) · Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning · doi:10.1080/14729679.2010.532986 · Cited by 140
“For some students, exposure to these and other stressors coupled with the students' developmental gaps in coping ability make this population particularly vulnerable to a host of psychological and physical health-related issues (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008 ).”
BackgroundCollege students coping with interpersonal stress: Examining a control-based model of coping
Coiro, M. J., Bettis, A. H., & Compas, B. E. (2016) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2016.1266641 · Cited by 161
“Findings showing substantial variation in college students’ use of primary and secondary control engagement coping strategies, and that use of such strategies was closely related to mental health outcomes, support the potential value of teaching coping skills in interventions.(49,50) Furthermore, the consistency of ou…”
BackgroundDale, S., Cohen, M., Weber, K., Cruise, R., Kelso, G., & Brody, L. (2014) · AIDS Patient Care and STDs · doi:10.1089/apc.2013.0329 · Cited by 135
“Interventions that have targeted resilience have provided some evidence for feasibility and effectiveness.(67,68) A resilience intervention for women with HIV or at risk HIV- women may consist of culturally relevant sessions on resilient coping strategies (e.”
BackgroundA Resilience Intervention in African American Adults With Type 2 Diabetes
Steinhardt, M. A., Mamerow, M. M., Brown, S. A., & Jolly, C. A. (2009) · The Diabetes Educator · doi:10.1177/0145721708329698 · Cited by 132
“Furthermore, the resilience intervention, adapted for college students, resulted in decreased stress and symptoms of illness in healthy individuals.(22)”
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“Resilience intervention has also been shown to help individuals developing effective coping strategies (Steinhardt and Dolbier 2008).”
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The Role of Resilience and Coping Styles in Subjective Well-Being Among Chinese University Students
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“4-week resilience intervention lowered students’ scores on depressive symptoms, negative affect, and perceived stress (Steinhardt and Dolbier 2008).”
BackgroundTeam Resilience as a Second-Order Emergent State: A Theoretical Model and Research Directions
Bowers, C. A., Kreutzer, C. P., Cannon‐Bowers, J. A., & Lamb, J. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01360 · Cited by 161
“Steinhardt and Dolbier, 2008; Loprinzi et al., 2011; Sood et al., 2011 Individual Relaxation/ Breathing Techniques designed to reduce the physiological stress response through controlled breathing.”
BackgroundThe Factor Structure of the Brief Cope: A Systematic Review
Solberg, M. A., Gridley, M. K., & Peters, R. M. (2021) · Western Journal of Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/01939459211012044 · Cited by 129
“…maladaptive management of emotion coping, and acceptance (Pérez-García et al., 2014); support, avoidant, problem-solving, and hopeful coping (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008); and adaptive, non-adaptive, cognitive, and religious coping strategies (Weiniger et al., 2006) (refer to Table 1 and…”
BackgroundResilience: A psychobiological construct for psychiatric disorders
Shrivastava, A., & Desousa, A. (2016) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/0019-5545.174365 · Cited by 127
“[11] Researchers have described active coping as a goal‐directed response, mediated by the person to change the nature of the trauma or mitigate the negative effect that the trauma has on the person.[11] Therefore, if a patient is placed in an environment that encourages healthy development of intrinsic psychological…”
BackgroundStress Reduction Through Psychoeducation
Daele, T. V., Hermans, D., Audenhove, C. V., & den Bergh, O. V. (2011) · Health Education & Behavior · doi:10.1177/1090198111419202 · Cited by 127
“…at posttest Shimazu et al. (2005) 16 teachers Efficacy of a stress management program 8 BJSQ No significant effect on stress response at posttest Steinhardt and Dolbier (2008) 57 college students Efficacy trial of a stress resilience intervention 30 PSS Significant effect for stressrelated…”
BackgroundGeneration Z undergraduate students’ resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic: a qualitative study
Ang, W. H. D., Shorey, S., López, V., Chew, H. S. J., & Lau, Y. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01830-4 · Cited by 152
“On the contrary, existing resilience interventions among students do not incorporate any form of time management skills in their training (Games et al., 2019; Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008).”
BackgroundPark, C. L., Edmondson, D. E., & Lee, J. K. (2011) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-011-9133-z · Cited by 121
Pines, E. W., Rauschhuber, M. L., Norgan, G. H., Cook, J., Canchola, L., Richardson, C., & Jones, M. E. (2011) · Journal of Advanced Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2648.2011.05875.x · Cited by 121
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Resilience and mental health among juveniles: role of strategies for coping with stress
Konaszewski, K., Niesiobędzka, M., & Surżykiewicz, J. (2021) · Health and Quality of Life Outcomes · doi:10.1186/s12955-021-01701-3 · Cited by 170
The intersection of gender and resilience
Hirani, S. A. A., Lasiuk, G. C., & Hegadoren, K. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/jpm.12313 · Cited by 130
Houston, J. B., First, J. M., Spialek, M. L., Sorenson, M. E., Mills-Sandoval, T., Lockett, M., First, N. L., Nitiéma, P., Allen, S. F., & Pfefferbaum, B. J. (2016) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2016.1227826 · Cited by 117
“relative to specific difficulties, although the Brief COPE has also been used to assess general (dispositional) coping as we employed it in the current study.(9) However, perhaps the implementation of multiple RCI sessions on different, specific problems and the use of the Brief COPE to assess generalized coping was a…”
MethodStress‐related growth: pre‐intervention correlates and change following a resilience intervention
Dolbier, C. L., Jaggars, S. S., & Steinhardt, M. A. (2009) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.1275 · Cited by 127
“A complete description of the curriculum is described elsewhere (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008), and a modifi ed version is available online (Steinhardt, 2008).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationShapero, B. G., Farabaugh, A., Terechina, O., DeCross, S., Cheung, J. C., Fava, M., & Holt, D. J. (2019) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2018.11.033 · Cited by 123
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WHITEHORN, J. C. (2022) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-8323-4.ch006 · Cited by 110
Chitra, T., & Karunanidhi, S. (2018) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-018-9294-9 · Cited by 137
Hartley, M. T. (2013) · Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0034355213480527 · Cited by 129
“Thus, as a preventive approach to mental health issues, rehabilitation counselors may be able to use empirically validated resilience interventions to increase academic persistence in students with the most psychological distress (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008).”
BackgroundMetzger, I. W., Blevins, C. E., Calhoun, C. D., Ritchwood, T. D., Gilmore, A. K., Stewart, R. W., & Bountress, K. E. (2017) · Journal of American College Health · doi:10.1080/07448481.2017.1351445 · Cited by 122
“At least two recent studies have demonstrated that students who received a CBT-informed intervention focused on coping with stress reported improvements in stress levels, healthy coping strategies, and problematic cognitions.(31,32) The integration of CBT-informed interventions into student orientation programs and ed…”
BackgroundA systematic review of interventions to foster physician resilience
Fox, S., Lydon, S., Byrne, D., Madden, C., Connolly, F., & O'Connor, P. E. (2017) · Postgraduate Medical Journal · doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2017-135212 · Cited by 111
Denovan, A., & Macaskill, A. (2016) · Leisure Studies · doi:10.1080/02614367.2016.1240220 · Cited by 126
“The university transition also places demands on undergraduates’ coping resources, increasing the potential to develop maladaptive coping behaviours (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008).”
BackgroundHoorelbeke, K., Marchetti, I., Schryver, M. D., & Koster, E. H. W. (2016) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2016.02.001 · Cited by 110
“Among more common cognitive behavioral interventions (e.g., Songprakun and McCann, 2012; Steinhardt and Dolbier, 2008), Waugh and Koster (2015) argue that patients may benefit from well-being training, stress inoculation training, meditation and mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (for a meta-analytical review on the…”
BackgroundEgo-Resiliency Reloaded: A Three-Component Model of General Resiliency
Farkas, D., & Orosz, G. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120883 · Cited by 109
Building resilience: The conceptual basis and research evidence for resilience training programs
Forbes, S., & Fikretoglu, D. (2018) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000152 · Cited by 99
“…Millear, Liossis, Shochet, Biggs, & Donald, 2008; Pahlevani et al., 2015; Sælid & Nordahl, 2017; Sarason et al., 1979; Songprakun & McCann, 2012; Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008; Tak, Kleinjan, Lichtwarck-Aschoff, & Engels, 2014; Williams et al., 2007), 16.1% based on some form of resilience theory…”
InfluentialResilience Intervention for Young Adults With Adverse Childhood Experiences
Chandler, G. E., Roberts, S. J., & Chiodo, L. M. (2015) · Journal of the American Psychiatric Nurses Association · doi:10.1177/1078390315620609 · Cited by 98
“Previous research indicated that the use of resilience training decreases depression in ACE survivors (Hartley, 2011; Wingo et al., 2010), increases resilience capacity (Kent & Davis, 2014), improves coping skills, and decreases symptomatology (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008).”
BackgroundThomas, C. L., & Zolkoski, S. M. (2020) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.00094 · Cited by 129
“This pattern replicates past work noting that the ability to alter ones’ interpretation of internal and environmental cues in a manner that supports the down-regulation of negative affective states promotes resilience to adverse events (Troy and Mauss, 2011; Carlson et al., 2012).”
BackgroundCoping Strategies as Predictors of Well-Being in Youth Adult
Mayordomo, T., Meléndez, J. C., Viguer, P., & Sales, A. (2014) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-014-0689-4 · Cited by 99
Which educational interventions improve healthcare professionals’ resilience?
Rogers, D. (2016) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.1080/0142159x.2016.1210111 · Cited by 96
“The CD-RISC was used in four of the seven quantitative papers covered by this review (Steinhardt & Dolbier 2008; Sood et al. 2011; Sharma et al. 2012; Peng et al. 2014).”
BackgroundMethodA Systematic Review of Studies Using the Brief COPE: Religious Coping in Factor Analyses
Krägeloh, C. U. (2011) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel2030216 · Cited by 104
“Note that Steinhardt and Dolbier [61] reported that turning to religion loaded together with the negatively scored sub-scale substance use, but no entry was made in that case.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMeneghel, I., Martínez, I. M., Salanova, M., & Witte, H. D. (2019) · Psychology in the Schools · doi:10.1002/pits.22253 · Cited by 95
Personal resilience and coping with implications for work. Part I: A review
Rice, V. J. B., & Liu, B. (2016) · Work · doi:10.3233/wor-162300 · Cited by 112
“[12–16].”
Is resilience a protective factor of internet addiction?
Robertson, T. W., Yan, Z., & Rapoza, K. A. (2017) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2017.09.027 · Cited by 93
Casey, P. (2009) · CNS Drugs · doi:10.2165/11311000-000000000-00000 · Cited by 92
Psychological Well-Being and Resilience as Predictors of First-Year Students' Academic Performance
Kotzé, M., & Kleynhans, R. (2013) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.1080/14330237.2013.10820593 · Cited by 91
“Interventions for successfully raising resilience (Franklin & Doran, 2009; Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008) in various settings, including academic settings, have been developed with successful outcomes.”
BackgroundAnguish and anxiety, stress and strain: Attending to writers’ stress in the dissertation process
Russell-Pinson, L., & Harris, M. L. (2017) · Journal of Second Language Writing · doi:10.1016/j.jslw.2017.11.005 · Cited by 105
Oh, H. Y., Marinovich, C., Rajkumar, R. P., Besecker, M., Zhou, S., Jacob, L., Koyanagi, A., & Smith, L. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.05.121 · Cited by 91
“In terms of interventions, reducing COVID-19 concern may require efforts to promote active coping (see El-Monshed et al., 2021) and resilience (Chmitorz et al., 2018; Steinhardt and Dolbier, 2008).”
Songprakun, W., & McCann, T. V. (2012) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-12-12 · Cited by 90
“This was shown in a pilot randomised controlled study which examined the effectiveness of a four-week resilience intervention programme designed to enhance resilience, coping strategies, and protective factors, and to decrease symptomatology during a period of increased academic stress [25].”
BackgroundYe, Z. J., Liang, M. Z., Qiu, H. Z., Liu, M. L., Hu, G. Y., Zhu, Y. F., Zeng, Z., Zhao, J., & Quan, X. M. (2016) · Breast Cancer Research and Treatment · doi:10.1007/s10549-016-3881-1 · Cited by 93
Musiat, P., Conrod, P., Treasure, J. L., Tylee, A. T., Williams, C., & Schmidt, U. H. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093621 · Cited by 89
“Similar to this study, the effects in such studies were often small [51].”
ResultManne, S. L., Virtue, S. M., Kashy, D. A., Ozga, M., Kissane, D. W., Heckman, C. J., Rubin, S. C., & Rosenblum, N. (2015) · Cancer Nursing · doi:10.1097/ncc.0000000000000215 · Cited by 101
“Supporting this dynamic conceptualization of resilience is the fact that resilience may increase over time(6) and that resilience can be bolstered by specialized psychological interventions.(14,15) According to the broaden and build theory of positive emotion, resilient individuals identify or develop resources and st…”
BackgroundResilience Is Associated with Outcome from Mild Traumatic Brain Injury
Losoi, H., Silverberg, N. D., Wäljas, M., Turunen, S., Rosti-Otajärvi, E. M., Helminen, M., Luoto, T. M., Julkunen, J., Öhman, J. E., & Iverson, G. L. (2015) · Journal of Neurotrauma · doi:10.1089/neu.2014.3799 · Cited by 93
“16,17 Carefully considering resilience theory could help clinicians develop and implement more effective interventions, especially psychological treatments, for people who have sustained traumatic brain injuries.”
Akeman, E., Kirlic, N., Clausen, A. N., Cosgrove, K. T., McDermott, T. J., Cromer, L. D., Paulus, M. P., Yeh, H., & Aupperle, R. L. (2020) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22969 · Cited by 85
“The skills targeted overlap significantly with cognitive behavioral therapies (CBT) for anxiety and depression, with the additional target of growth mindset processes highlighted in psychological resilience research (Steinhardt & Dolbier, 2008).”
BackgroundResilience Among Women with HIV: Impact of Silencing the Self and Socioeconomic Factors
Dale, S. K., Cohen, M. H., Kelso, G. A., Cruise, R. C., Weber, K. M., Watson, C., Burke-Miller, J. K., & Brody, L. R. (2014) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0348-x · Cited by 85
“A study by Steinhardt and Dolbier (2008) suggests that resilient personal qualities may be fostered and learned via interventions.”
Skeffington, P. M., Rees, C. S., Mazzucchelli, T. G., & Kane, R. T. (2016) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0155873 · Cited by 84
“It should be noted that the program was initially written to be eight hours in length, as this was the shortest comparable resilience program length published at that time [42].”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Steinhardt, M., & Dolbier, C.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- East Carolina University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of American College Health
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2008-01
- Volume
- 56
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 445-453
- ISSN
- 0164-4300 (ISSN-L)
- 0744-8481
- 1940-3208
- OpenAlex
- W1966828258
- Cited by
- 759
- References
- 40
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 53 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 74 · 2020: 51 · 2019: 52 · 2018: 51 · 2017: 44 · 2016: 58 · 2015: 42 · 2014: 46 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 23
- FWCI
- 25.93
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of American College Health (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- University of Texas at Austin
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Resilience and Mental Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Student Stress and Coping
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Stress and Burnout Research
- Keywords
- resilience interventions, coping strategies, protective factors, academic stress, university students, psychoeducational intervention, stress management, stress prevention, depressive symptoms, perceived stress, self-esteem, self-leadership, positive affect, avoidance coping
- MeSH terms
- Adaptation, Psychological, Adolescent, Adult, Depression, Female, Health Education, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Pilot Projects, Stress, Psychological
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