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Cited by 87CO2 Sequestration and Geologic InteractionsTailings Management and PropertiesMine drainage and remediation techniques

Strategizing carbon-neutral mines: A case for pilot projects

Open access
Power, Ian, McCutcheon, Jenine, Harrison, Anna, Wilson, Sasha, Dipple, Gregory, Kelly, Simone, Southam, Colette, Southam, Gordon·2014·Minerals
DOI 10.3390/min4020399
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Abstract

Ultramafic and mafic mine tailings are a valuable feedstock for carbon mineralization that should be used to offset carbon emissions generated by the mining industry. Although passive carbonation is occurring at the abandoned Clinton Creek asbestos mine, and the active Diavik diamond and Mount Keith nickel mines, there remains untapped potential for sequestering CO2 within these mine wastes. There is the potential to accelerate carbonation to create economically viable, large-scale CO2 fixation technologies that can operate at near-surface temperature and atmospheric pressure. We review several relevant acceleration strategies including: bioleaching of magnesium silicates; increasing the supply of CO2 via heterotrophic oxidation of waste organics; and biologically induced carbonate precipitation, as well as enhancing passive carbonation through tailings management practices and use of CO2 point sources. Scenarios for pilot scale projects are proposed with the aim of moving towards carbon-neutral mines. A financial incentive is necessary to encourage the development of these strategies. We recommend the use of a dynamic real options pricing approach, instead of traditional discounted cash-flow approaches, because it reflects the inherent value in managerial flexibility to adapt and capitalize on favorable future opportunities in the highly volatile carbon market.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that ultramafic and mafic mine tailings can be used for carbon mineralization to offset mining emissions, and it proposes pilot-scale strategies to accelerate carbonation. It recommends real options valuation to justify investment under volatile carbon prices.

Key findings

Ultramafic and mafic tailings are a reactive feedstock: global production generates ~419 Mt of such tailings annually, with potential to sequester ~175 Mt CO2/year; at Mount Keith, ~11 Mt tailings/year could sequester ~4 Mt CO2/year, about 10 times the mine’s annual emissions. Passive carbonation is already occurring at Clinton Creek (~6,200 g CO2/m2/year), Diavik (374–418 g CO2/m2/year), and Mount Keith (2,400 g CO2/m2/year, offsetting ~11% of annual mine emissions). The paper reviews five acceleration strategies—bioleaching, enhanced passive carbonation, CO2 injection, oxidation of waste organics, and bioreactors—with lab evidence such as bioleaching releasing 10–14% of Mg and CO2 injection accelerating brucite carbonation up to ~240 times. Pilot projects are needed; Scenario A could offset ~74% of Mount Keith emissions (44% enhanced passive carbonation + 30% bioreactor), while Scenario B valuation ranges from −$4,000,000 U.S./year at EU carbon price (~$6/t CO2) to +$5,400,000 U.S./year at UK carbon floor (~$28/t CO2).

Methods

Narrative review and synthesis of field, laboratory, and geochemical modeling studies focused on three sites: the abandoned Clinton Creek asbestos mine, the active Diavik diamond mine, and the active Mount Keith nickel mine. The paper proposes two pilot-project scenarios using a decision tree and Mount Keith data, then estimates operational costs per tonne CO2 and compares finite-life resource, net present value, and real options valuation approaches.

Limitations

The paper states that most acceleration strategies have been proven mainly at laboratory scale, pilot projects are crucially needed, and economic viability depends on carbon price and financial incentives; it also states that NPV ignores managerial flexibility, motivating real options. Text-evident limitations: the proposed scenarios are conceptual and based largely on Mount Keith, no pilot implementation or field validation is reported, and cost estimates rely on assumptions and external CCS cost ranges.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/min4020399

Cites

144 of 144 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 162 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    Passive carbonation of ultramafic tailings has been documented at several sites under normal mining conditions.

    “As an indication of their reactivity, passive carbonation of ultramafic tailings has been documented at several sites under normal mining conditions [11,17,18,20,21,24,26,30].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 8 sources checked
    • cites [11] Bea, S.A., Wilson, S.A., Mayer, K.U., Dipple, G.M., Power, I.M., and Gamazo, P. (2012). Reactive transport modeling of natural carbon sequestration in ultramafic mine tailings. Vadose Zone J. , 11. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] Wilson, 2011, Subarctic weathering of mineral wastes provides a sink for atmospheric CO2, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [18] Wilson, 2009, Carbon dioxide fixation within mine wastes of ultramafic-hosted ore deposits: Examples from the Clinton Creek and Cassiar chrysotile deposits, Canada, Econ. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] Wilson, 2006, Verifying and quantifying carbon fixation in minerals from serpentine-rich mine tailings using the Rietveld method with X-ray powder diffraction data, Am. Miner. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [21] Wilson, 2009, Quantifying carbon fixation in trace minerals from processed kimberlite: A comparative study of quantitative methods using X-ray powder diffraction data with applications to the Diavik Diamond Mine, Northwest Territories, Canada, Appl. Geochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [24] Pronost, 2012, CO2-depleted warm air venting from chrysotile milling waste (Thetford Mines, Canada): Evidence for in-situ carbon capture from the atmosphere, Geology source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [26] Beinlich, 2012, In situ sequestration of atmospheric CO2 at low temperature and surface cracking of serpentinized peridotite in mine shafts, Chem. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [30] Levitan, 2009, Mineralogy of mine waste at the Vermont Asbestos Group mine, Belvidere Mountain, Vermont, Am. Miner. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    Complete carbonation of global annual ultramafic and mafic mine tailings provides the potential to sequester approximately 175 Mt CO2/year.

    “Assuming complete carbonation, this provides the potential to sequester ~175 Mt CO 2 /year [35].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] DePaolo, 2013, Carbon Mineralization: From Natural Analogues to Engineered Systems, Geochemistry of Geologic CO2 Sequestration

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Complete carbonation of global annual ultramafic and mafic mine tailings is achievable.
  • Findingreasoning

    Mount Keith has a capture capacity of approximately 10 times the annual emissions generated by the mine.

    “This represents a capture capacity of approximately 10 times the annual emissions generated by the mine.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Passive carbonation has been documented at Clinton Creek, Diavik, Mount Keith, and other abandoned and active mine sites in Canada, United States, Australia, and Norway.

    “Passive carbonation has been documented at Clinton Creek [18,20], Diavik [17,21], and Mount Keith [11,19] as well as other abandoned and active mine sites in Canada, United States, Australia, and Norway [24,26,30,42].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [18] Wilson, 2009, Carbon dioxide fixation within mine wastes of ultramafic-hosted ore deposits: Examples from the Clinton Creek and Cassiar chrysotile deposits, Canada, Econ. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] Wilson, 2006, Verifying and quantifying carbon fixation in minerals from serpentine-rich mine tailings using the Rietveld method with X-ray powder diffraction data, Am. Miner. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [17] Wilson, 2011, Subarctic weathering of mineral wastes provides a sink for atmospheric CO2, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [21] Wilson, 2009, Quantifying carbon fixation in trace minerals from processed kimberlite: A comparative study of quantitative methods using X-ray powder diffraction data with applications to the Diavik Diamond Mine, Northwest Territories, Canada, Appl. Geochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [11] Bea, S.A., Wilson, S.A., Mayer, K.U., Dipple, G.M., Power, I.M., and Gamazo, P. (2012). Reactive transport modeling of natural carbon sequestration in ultramafic mine tailings. Vadose Zone J. , 11. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] Wilson, S.A., Harrison, A.L., Dipple, G.M., Power, I.M., Barker, S.L.L., Mayer, K.U., Fallon, S.J., Raudsepp, M., and Southam, G. (2014). Offsetting of CO2 emissions by air capture in mine tailings at the Mount Keith Nickel Mine, Western Australia: Rates, controls and prospects for carbon neutral mining. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control, in press. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    Complete carbonation of the approximately 11 Mt of tailings generated annually at the Mount Keith nickel mine would sequester approximately 4 Mt CO2/year as magnesium carbonate minerals such as hydromagnesite.

    “For example, complete carbonation of the ~11 Mt of tailings generated annually at the Mount Keith nickel mine in Western Australia [36] would sequester ~4 Mt CO 2 /year as magnesium carbonate minerals such as hydromagnesite [Mg 5 (CO 3 ) 4 (OH) 2 •4H 2 O].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] WMC Resources Ltd (2005). Annual Sustainability Report 2004, WMC Resources Ltd.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: Complete carbonation of the tailings generated annually at the Mount Keith nickel mine is achievable.
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 45
  • May combine two claims. 59

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Passive carbonation is occurring at the abandoned Clinton Creek asbestos mine and the active Diavik diamond and Mount Keith nickel mines.

    “Although passive carbonation is occurring at the abandoned Clinton Creek asbestos mine, and the active Diavik diamond and Mount Keith nickel mines, there remains untapped potential for sequestering CO 2 within these mine wastes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The Mg concentration of water draining from Clinton Creek chrysotile tailings is approximately 160 mg/L compared to the natural background Mg concentration in local creek water of approximately 70 mg/L.

    “For example, the Mg concentration of water draining from Clinton Creek chrysotile tailings is ~160 mg/L in comparison to the natural background Mg concentration in local creek water of ~70 mg/L [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Power, 2010, Bioleaching of ultramafic tailings by Acidithiobacillus spp. for CO2 Sequestration, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    The Clinton Creek microbialites are columnar (up to 15 cm tall) and presumably began forming in the flooded open pit after the mine closed in 1978.

    “These microbialites are columnar (up to 15 cm tall; Figure 2b) and presumably began forming in the flooded open pit after the mine closed in 1978.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Exposing biological samples to dilute acid while observing under a light microscope generated visible bubbles of CO2, thereby determining the presence of submicron-scale grains of carbonate minerals amongst non-carbonate grains.

    “Exposing these biological samples to dilute acid while observing under a light microscope generated visible bubbles of CO 2 (Figure 2f,i), thereby determining the presence of submicron-scale grains of carbonate minerals amongst non-carbonate grains [51].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [51] Power, I.M., Wilson, S.A., Thom, J.M., Dipple, G.M., and Southam, G. (2007). Biologically induced mineralization of dypingite by cyanobacteria from an alkaline wetland near Atlin, British Columbia, Canada. Geochem. Trans., 8. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    At Diavik and Mount Keith, field observations suggest process waters in tailings storage facilities are oligotrophic and do not support extensive microbial growth.

    “At Diavik and Mount Keith, field observations suggest that process waters in TSFs are oligotrophic and do not support extensive microbial growth.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Biofilms and microbial mats, dominated by cyanobacteria, are found on pit walls at Diavik and within drainage channels at Mount Keith.

    “Still, biofilms and microbial mats, dominated by cyanobacteria, are found on pit walls at Diavik (Figure 2d-f) and within drainage channels at Mount Keith (Figure 2g-i), respectively.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Purge solution chemistry during pre-leaching had Mg concentrations of 45.0-55.0 g/L and during bioleaching of 24.0-26.0 g/L.

    “Purge solution chemistry during pre-leaching had Mg concentrations of 45.0-55.0g/L and during bioleaching of 24.0-26.0g/L.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Qin, 2009, Heap bioleaching of a low-grade nickel-bearing sulfide ore containing high levels of magnesium as olivine, chlorite and antigorite, Hydrometallurgy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    CO2-depleted air has been documented to vent from chrysotile mining waste, further suggesting CO2 supply may be limiting for carbon mineralization.

    “In addition, CO 2 -depleted air has been documented to vent from chrysotile mining waste, further suggesting the CO 2 supply may be limiting for carbon mineralization [24].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [24] Pronost, 2012, CO2-depleted warm air venting from chrysotile milling waste (Thetford Mines, Canada): Evidence for in-situ carbon capture from the atmosphere, Geology source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    There was good agreement between experimental results and those predicted using a pH-dependent chrysotile dissolution rate law, hence geochemical modeling could be used in a predictive capacity.

    “There was good agreement between the experimental results and those predicted using a pH-dependent chrysotile dissolution rate law [38], hence geochemical modeling could be used in a predictive capacity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [38] Thom, 2013, Chrysotile dissolution rates: Implications for carbon sequestration, Appl. Geochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In comparison to controls lacking microbes, leachate waters from biotic columns with ground pyrite had Mg concentrations up to 26% greater, and columns using elemental sulfur had Mg concentrations up to 580% greater.

    “In comparison to controls lacking microbes, leachate waters from biotic columns with ground pyrite had Mg concentrations that were up to 26% greater, and in columns using elemental sulfur Mg concentrations were up to 580% greater (Figure 5b) [13].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Power, 2010, Bioleaching of ultramafic tailings by Acidithiobacillus spp. for CO2 Sequestration, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Mg concentrations in leachates from columns containing metal sulfides generally declined over the year, likely owing to passivation of chrysotile surfaces by iron hydroxides, whereas Mg concentrations generally increased in columns using elemental sulfur, possibly owing to increasing populations of A. thiooxidans.

    “Mg concentrations in leachates generated by those columns containing metal sulfides generally declined over the year, likely owing to the passivation of chrysotile surfaces by iron hydroxides [13], whereas Mg concentrations generally increased in columns using elemental sulfur, possibly owing to increasing populations of A. thiooxidans.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Power, 2010, Bioleaching of ultramafic tailings by Acidithiobacillus spp. for CO2 Sequestration, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Acid-generating substances were typically at pH ~2, whereas leachate solutions were pH ~8.5, as reaction with chrysotile neutralized acidity.

    “Acid-generating substances were typically at pH ~2, whereas leachate solutions were pH ~8.5, as reaction with chrysotile neutralized acidity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    After six weeks of incubation, pH increased from 8.4 to 9.2 and Mg concentration decreased from 356 to 278 mg/L.

    “After six weeks of incubation, pH had increased from 8.4 to 9.2 and Mg concentration had decreased from 356 to 278 mg/L”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Microbial carbonate precipitation could potentially sequester about 53 kt CO2/year in the form of carbonate minerals with an additional about 11 kt CO2/year stored as biomass, which in total would offset GHG emissions by 17%.

    “Microbial carbonate precipitation could potentially sequester ~53 kt CO 2 /year in the form of carbonate minerals with an additional ~11 kt CO 2 /year stored as biomass [15], which, in total, would offset GHG emissions by 17%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Power, 2011, Microbially mediated mineral carbonation: Roles of phototrophy and heterotrophy, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • The authors state this as an assumption: The estimate for annual biomass production assumes a conservative growth rate of about 35 mg dry biomass/L water/day under non-ideal conditions and a lipid content of 11%.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Enhanced passive carbonation of an average brucite abundance of 2.5 wt % would sequester 166 kt CO2/year or 44% of mine emissions in the form of hydromagnesite.

    “Enhanced passive carbonation of an average brucite abundance of 2.5 wt % would sequester 166 kt CO 2 /year or 44% of mine emissions in the form of hydromagnesite.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In the control, pH remained constant and Mg concentration increased to 401 mg/L due to evapoconcentration.

    “whereas the pH of the control remained constant and Mg concentration increased to 401 mg/L due to evapoconcentration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    At Mount Keith, the 11 Mt of tailings generated each year would sequester 3400 kt CO2/year and 170 kt CO2/year from complete carbonation of antigorite + lizardite and brucite, respectively, to form hydromagnesite, which in total would offset mine emissions by approximately 10 times.

    “At Mount Keith, the 11 Mt of tailings generated each year would sequester 3400 kt CO 2 /year and 170 kt CO 2 /year from complete carbonation of antigorite + lizardite and brucite, respectively to form hydromagnesite, which in total would offset mine emissions by approximately 10 times (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Using EU carbon market and UK carbon floor pricing of approximately $6 U.S./t CO2 and $28 U.S./t CO2, respectively, as of 1 January 2014, passive carbonation at Mount Keith can be valued at approximately $250,000 U.S./year and $1,200,000 U.S./year, respectively.

    “Using EU carbon market and UK carbon floor pricing of approximately $6 U.S./t CO 2 and $28 U.S./t CO 2 , respectively, as of 1 January 2014, passive carbonation at Mount Keith can be valued at approximately $250,000 U.S./year and $1,200,000 U.S./year, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    A conservative sequestration cost of $8.5 based on transportation and storage costs of $8 and $0.5/t CO2, respectively, for a total cost of $16.5/t CO2.

    “Mines commonly operate in remote locations, therefore we have considered a conservative sequestration cost of $8.5 based on transportation and storage costs of $8 and $0.5/t CO 2 , respectively, for a total cost of $16.5/t CO 2 [145].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [145] Metz, B., Davidson, O., de Coninck, H., Loos, M., and Meyer, L.A. (2005). IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, Cambridge University Press.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: Mines commonly operate in remote locations.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    In Section 5, this simplified approach yielded the decision not to invest in Scenario B because S -X was negative.

    “In Section 5, this simplified approach yielded the decision not to invest in Scenario B because S -X was negative.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingreasoning

    The real options valuation method has a much more complex decision making criteria compared to the simpler finite life resource and NPV models.

    “A quick glance at Table 3, reveals that the real options valuation method has a much more complex decision making criteria compared to the simpler finite life resource and NPV models.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Carbonation can be accelerated to create economically viable, large-scale CO2 fixation technologies that operate at near-surface temperature and atmospheric pressure.

    “There is the potential to accelerate carbonation to create economically viable, large-scale CO 2 fixation technologies that can operate at near-surface temperature and atmospheric pressure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The costs of mineral pre-treatment and the energy economics of accelerating carbonation reactions from geological to industrial timescales remain serious obstacles.

    “Rapid conversion of naturally occurring ultramafic and mafic minerals at high temperature and high pressure using industrial reactors is technologically feasible (e.g., [1,2]); however, the costs of mineral pre-treatment and the energy economics of accelerating carbonation reactions from geological to industrial timescales remain serious obstacles [3].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [3] Zevenhoven, 2011, CO2 mineral sequestration: Developments toward large-scale application, Greenh. Gas Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Sulfidic mine tailings require a more sophisticated tailings storage facility design to prevent the generation of acid mine drainage.

    “In contrast, sulfidic mine tailings require a more sophisticated TSF design to prevent the generation of acid mine drainage [31].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [31] Jambor, J.L., Blowes, D.W., and Ritchie, A.I.M. (2003). Environmental Aspects of Mine Wastes, Mineralogical Association of Canada.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Pilot projects are crucially needed to evaluate strategies for accelerating carbon mineralization.

    “Although these strategies have proven effective in laboratory-scale studies (e.g., [13,15,19,28,32,33]), pilot projects are crucially needed to evaluate strategies for accelerating carbon mineralization, which if successful and cost effective could be incorporated into TSF design with the purpose of sequestering CO 2 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Diavik has installed four wind turbines expected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 6%.

    “Diavik has installed four wind turbines that are expected to reduce GHG emissions by 6%, suggesting that there is motivation to reduce GHG emissions [41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41] (2011). 2011 Sustainable Development Report, Diavik Diamond Mine.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Diavik emitted approximately 219 kt CO2 equivalent of greenhouse gases in 2011 and Mount Keith emitted approximately 382 kt CO2 equivalent in 2004.

    “The Diavik mine emitted ~219 kt of CO 2 equivalent (CO 2 e) of greenhouse gases in 2011 and the Mount Keith mine emitted ~382 kt of CO 2 e in 2004 [36,41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [36] WMC Resources Ltd (2005). Annual Sustainability Report 2004, WMC Resources Ltd.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [41] (2011). 2011 Sustainable Development Report, Diavik Diamond Mine.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premiseown data

    Antigorite and lizardite comprise the majority of Mount Keith tailings and brucite is present at minor abundance.

    “Antigorite and lizardite comprise the majority of the tailings and brucite, a highly reactive phase, is present at minor abundance (Table 1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Clinton Creek, Diavik, and Mount Keith are each characterized by distinct climatic and hydrological conditions and different tailings management practices, all of which impact the rate and extent of carbon mineralization.

    “Each of these sites is characterized by distinct climatic and hydrological conditions and different tailings management practices, all of which have an impact on the rate and extent of carbon mineralization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Mount Keith produces approximately 11 Mt of tailings per year transported as a suspension in hypersaline process water and deposited from nine risers in a tailings storage facility approximately 16.6 km2 in area.

    “It produces ~11 Mt of tailings per year that are transported as a suspension in hypersaline process water ([Mg + Ca] ≈ 3500 mg/L) and deposited from nine risers in a TSF that is ~16.6 km 2 in area (Figure 1c).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These rates of passive carbonation are achieved under non-ideal chemical conditions (e.g., CO2 limited), leaving the majority of tailings un-carbonated.

    “These rates of passive carbonation are achieved under non-ideal chemical conditions (e.g., CO 2 limited), leaving the majority of tailings un-carbonated.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Soils and sediments possessing high microbial activity typically possess on the order of 10,000 different species of bacteria with total populations of up to 10^10 bacteria/g.

    “In contrast, soils and sediments possessing high microbial activity, typically possess on the order of 10,000 different species of bacteria with total populations of up to 10 10 bacteria/g [50].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [50] Torsvik, 1996, Total bacterial diversity in soil and sediment communities—A review, J. Indust. Microbiol.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Tailings storage facilities are neither designed for carbon mineralization nor as habitats for microbial communities that could facilitate carbon mineralization.

    “TSFs are neither designed for carbon mineralization nor as habitats for microbial communities that could facilitate carbon mineralization.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These examples of microbe-carbonate interactions suggest that a mining environment can foster microbial communities capable of mediating carbonate precipitation, which introduces a potential biological pathway for sequestering CO2 at mine sites.

    “These examples of microbe-carbonate interactions suggest that a mining environment can foster microbial communities capable of mediating carbonate precipitation, which introduces a potential biological pathway for sequestering CO 2 at mine sites.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The reactivity of ultramafic mine waste is enhanced by increased surface area due to mineral processing, yet dissolution rates remain sluggish at the alkaline pH of process waters.

    “The reactivity of ultramafic mine waste is enhanced by increased surface area due to mineral processing, yet dissolution rates remain sluggish at the alkaline pH of process waters [11,38,[52][53][54][55].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [11] Bea, S.A., Wilson, S.A., Mayer, K.U., Dipple, G.M., Power, I.M., and Gamazo, P. (2012). Reactive transport modeling of natural carbon sequestration in ultramafic mine tailings. Vadose Zone J. , 11. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [38] Thom, 2013, Chrysotile dissolution rates: Implications for carbon sequestration, Appl. Geochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [52] Bales, 1985, Dissolution kinetics of chrysotile at pH 7 to 10, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [53] Pokrovsky, 2000, Kinetics and mechanism of forsterite dissolution at 25 °C and pH from 1 to 12, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [54] Pokrovsky, 2004, Experimental study of brucite dissolution and precipitation in aqueous solutions: Surface speciation and chemical affinity control, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [55] Daval, 2013, Lizardite serpentine dissolution kinetics as a function of pH and temperature, including effects of elevated pCO2, Chem. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Heap leaching has been used at some mining facilities to enhance metal extraction from low-grade sulfidic ores of copper, gold, uranium and zinc.

    “Heap leaching has been used at some mining facilities to enhance metal extraction from low-grade sulfidic ores of copper, gold, uranium and zinc [59][60][61].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [59] Padilla, 2008, On the optimization of heap leaching, Miner. Eng. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [60] Bosecker, 1997, Bioleaching: Metal solubilization by microorganisms, FEMS Microbiol. Rev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [61] Johnson, 2013, A new direction for biomining: Extraction of metals by reductive dissolution of oxidized ores, Minerals source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    pH-dependent dissolution rates for lizardite, chrysotile, forsterite, and brucite have been experimentally determined and generally increase with increasing acidity.

    “The pH-dependent dissolution rates for some common ultramafic tailings minerals such lizardite [55], chrysotile [38], forsterite [53] and brucite [54] have been experimentally determined and generally increase with increasing acidity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [55] Daval, 2013, Lizardite serpentine dissolution kinetics as a function of pH and temperature, including effects of elevated pCO2, Chem. Geol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [38] Thom, 2013, Chrysotile dissolution rates: Implications for carbon sequestration, Appl. Geochem. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [53] Pokrovsky, 2000, Kinetics and mechanism of forsterite dissolution at 25 °C and pH from 1 to 12, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The ore contained Mg-bearing minerals, dominantly olivine and antigorite, and minor abundances of sulfide minerals including pyrrhotite and pentlandite.

    “The ore contained a host of Mg-bearing minerals, dominantly olivine and antigorite as well as minor abundances of sulfide minerals, including pyrrhotite [FeS] and pentlandite [(Fe,Ni) 9 S 8 ].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [74] Zhen, 2009, Column bioleaching of a low grade nickel-bearing sulfide ore containing high magnesium as olivine, chlorite and antigorite, Hydrometallurgy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    At low pH values, ferric iron catalyses pyrite oxidation resulting in considerable acid generation.

    “At low pH values, ferric iron catalyses pyrite oxidation resulting in considerable acid generation (Equation ( 3)).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    These bacteria are chemoautotrophs, obtaining energy through chemical processes and using CO2 as a carbon source, which is important for carbon sequestration.

    “These bacteria are chemoautotrophs meaning they obtain their energy through chemical processes and use CO 2 as a carbon source, which is important for carbon sequestration.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Qin et al. used this consortium for bioleaching a 500-tonne heap that was irrigated by a network of pipes and drippers.

    “Qin et al. [73] used this consortium for bioleaching a 500-tonne heap that was irrigated by a network of pipes and drippers.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Qin, 2009, Heap bioleaching of a low-grade nickel-bearing sulfide ore containing high levels of magnesium as olivine, chlorite and antigorite, Hydrometallurgy source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Acid-base accounting is used for predicting the potential onset of acid mine drainage.

    “Acid-base accounting is used for predicating the potential onset of acid mine drainage [76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [76] Jambor, J.L., Blowes, D.W., and Ritchie, A.I.M. (2003). Environmental Aspects of Mine Wastes, Mineralogical Association of Canada.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    These same procedures could be applied to a bioleaching scenario to ensure that the neutralization potential of tailings is not exceeded.

    “These same procedures could be applied to a bioleaching scenario to ensure that the neutralization potential of tailings is not exceeded [13].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13] Power, 2010, Bioleaching of ultramafic tailings by Acidithiobacillus spp. for CO2 Sequestration, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The quantity of acid-generating material can be adjusted to maximize mineral dissolution, yet prevent acidic drainage.

    “The quantity of acid-generating material can be adjusted to maximize mineral dissolution, yet prevent acidic drainage.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Considerations for enhanced passive carbonation include the abundance of highly reactive phases, the availability of land to increase the areal footprint of a tailings storage facility, the permeability of tailings, the climate, and the economic viability of deploying the required infrastructure.

    “Some considerations for enhanced passive carbonation are the abundance of highly reactive phases (e.g., oxides and hydroxides) that react more readily with atmospheric CO 2 , the availability of land to increase the areal footprint of a TSF, the permeability of tailings, the climate, and the economic viability of deploying the required infrastructure (Table 2).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    CO2 supply may be limiting due to relatively slow gas to solution transfer and hydration of CO2(aq), and limited ingress of atmospheric CO2 into tailings.

    “This is likely due to the relatively slow gas to solution transfer and hydration of CO 2(aq) [77], and the limited ingress of atmospheric CO 2 into tailings [19].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [77] Stumm, W., and Morgan, J.J. (1996). Aquatic Chemistry—Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters, Wiley. [3rd ed.].

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] Wilson, S.A., Harrison, A.L., Dipple, G.M., Power, I.M., Barker, S.L.L., Mayer, K.U., Fallon, S.J., Raudsepp, M., and Southam, G. (2014). Offsetting of CO2 emissions by air capture in mine tailings at the Mount Keith Nickel Mine, Western Australia: Rates, controls and prospects for carbon neutral mining. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control, in press. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In situ aeration (air sparging) is an established method for bioremediation of contaminated groundwater where increased O2 concentrations stimulate growth of aerobic heterotrophs.

    “This is similar to existing technologies for in situ aeration (i.e., air sparging), an established method for bioremediation of contaminated groundwater where increased O 2 concentrations stimulate growth of aerobic heterotrophs (e.g., [78,79]).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [78] Bass, 2000, Performance of air sparging systems: A review of case studies, J. Hazard. Mater. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [79] Kabelitz, 2009, Enhancement of the microbial community biomass and diversity during air sparging bioremediation of a soil highly contaminated with kerosene and BTEX, Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Increasing the number of deposition points or increasing the areal footprint of the tailings storage facility would better control the thickness of tailings deposits and increase the duration of exposure to atmospheric CO2.

    “Increasing the number of deposition points or increasing the areal footprint of the TSF would better control the thickness of tailings deposits and, hence, increase duration of exposure to atmospheric CO 2 .”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Injection of CO2-rich gases or fluids directly into ultramafic tailings has been proposed for accelerating carbon mineralization.

    “Injection of CO 2 -rich gases or fluids directly into ultramafic tailings has been proposed for accelerating carbon mineralization [28].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [28] Harrison, 2013, Accelerated carbonation of brucite in mine tailings for carbon sequestration, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    A challenge associated with elevated CO2 concentrations is that dissolving CO2 into water decreases pH, and therefore decreases carbonate mineral saturation.

    “A challenge associated with elevated CO 2 concentrations is that dissolving CO 2 into water decreases pH, and therefore decreases carbonate mineral saturation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    Photoautotrophic carbonate precipitation could be encouraged in bioreactors or open ponds downstream of a TSF such that the pond receives tailings process waters rich in cations.

    “Photoautotrophic carbonate precipitation could be encouraged in bioreactors or open ponds “downstream” of a TSF such that the pond receives tailings process waters rich in cations [15].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [15] Power, 2011, Microbially mediated mineral carbonation: Roles of phototrophy and heterotrophy, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Additional carbon sources or more proficient means of delivering atmospheric CO2 into solution are required to accelerate microbial carbonate precipitation.

    “Consequently, additional carbon sources or more proficient means of delivering atmospheric CO 2 into solution are required to accelerate microbial carbonate precipitation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Increased levels of CO2, which could be achieved within a TSF carbonation pond by bubbling concentrated CO2 into the water, would stimulate biological activity while also providing increased availability of DIC for carbonate precipitation.

    “Increased levels of CO 2 , which could be achieved within a TSF carbonation pond by bubbling concentrated CO 2 into the water, would stimulate biological activity while also providing increased availability of DIC for carbonate precipitation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the presence of elevated CO2 concentrations, some species of cyanobacteria and microalgae experience an increase in growth rate, photosynthetic activity, and nitrogen fixation.

    “In the presence of elevated CO 2 concentrations, some species of cyanobacteria and microalgae experience an increase in growth rate, photosynthetic activity, and nitrogen fixation [120-125].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [120] Yang, 2003, Effects of CO2 concentrations on the freshwater microalgae, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, Chlorella pyrenoidosa and Scenedesmus obliquus (Chlorophyta), J. Appl. Phycol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [121] Beardall, 2004, The potential effects of global climate change on microalgal photosynthesis, growth and ecology, Phycologia source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [122] Ramos, 2007, Effect of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide on the marine nitrogen fixer Trichodesmium, Glob. Biogeochem. Cycle

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [123] Levitan, 2007, Elevated CO2 enhances nitrogen fixation and growth in the marine cyanobacterium Trichodesmium, Glob. Chang. Biol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [124] Riebesell, 2007, Enhanced biological carbon consumption in a high CO2 ocean, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [125] Fu, 2007, Effects of increased temperature and CO2 on photosynthesis, growth, and elemental ratios in marine Synechococcus and Prochlorococcus (Cyanobacteria), J. Phycol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If biofuel production costs are less than oil prices, then a profit can be made while more permanently sequestering CO2 as carbonate.

    “However, if biofuel production costs are less than oil prices, then a profit can be made while more permanently sequestering CO 2 as carbonate.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Harrison et al. estimate that carbonation of approximately 3 wt % brucite would be sufficient to offset point source emissions at Mount Keith and that tailings with approximately 6.5 wt % brucite would be sufficient to render many ultramafic-hosted mines carbon-neutral.

    “For instance, Harrison et al. [40] estimate that carbonation of approximately 3 wt % brucite would be sufficient to offset point source emissions at Mount Keith and that tailings with approximately 6.5 wt % brucite would be sufficient to render many ultramafic-hosted mines carbon-neutral.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] Brown, A., Figueroa, L., and Wolkersdorfer, C. (2013, January 6–9). Strategies for Enhancing Carbon Sequestration in Mg-Rich Mine Tailings. Proceedings of International Mine Water Association 2013 Annual Conference, Denver, CO, USA.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    CO2 injection into ultramafic mine tailings may also increase silicate dissolution rates, thereby increasing the cation supply.

    “suggesting that CO 2 injection into ultramafic mine tailings may also increase silicate dissolution rates, thereby increasing the cation supply.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    A bioreactor would be limited by the volume of water along with microbial growth and carbonate precipitation rates.

    “Enhanced passive carbonation is limited by the quantity of highly reactive brucite present in the tailings, whereas, a bioreactor would be limited by the volume of water along with microbial growth and carbonate precipitation rates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Sampling involved collection of grab samples (e.g., 50 to 500 g) of tailings from the surface and at depth (e.g., augering), which are adequate for most analyses.

    “Sampling involved collection of grab samples (e.g., 50 to 500 g) of tailings from the surface and at depth (e.g., augering), which are adequate for most analyses [17,19,20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [17] Wilson, 2011, Subarctic weathering of mineral wastes provides a sink for atmospheric CO2, Environ. Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [19] Wilson, S.A., Harrison, A.L., Dipple, G.M., Power, I.M., Barker, S.L.L., Mayer, K.U., Fallon, S.J., Raudsepp, M., and Southam, G. (2014). Offsetting of CO2 emissions by air capture in mine tailings at the Mount Keith Nickel Mine, Western Australia: Rates, controls and prospects for carbon neutral mining. Int. J. Greenh. Gas Control, in press. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [20] Wilson, 2006, Verifying and quantifying carbon fixation in minerals from serpentine-rich mine tailings using the Rietveld method with X-ray powder diffraction data, Am. Miner. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Enhanced passive carbonation is limited by the quantity of highly reactive brucite present in the tailings.

    “Enhanced passive carbonation is limited by the quantity of highly reactive brucite present in the tailings, whereas, a bioreactor would be limited by the volume of water along with microbial growth and carbonate precipitation rates.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    If carbon prices do not provide an incentive for companies to reduce emissions now, then companies will be forced to do more later, at a higher cost and with greater urgency.

    “There is also recognition that if carbon prices do not provide an incentive for companies to reduce emissions now, then companies will be forced to do more later, at a higher cost and with greater urgency [150].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [150] Stern, N. (2007). The Economics of Climate Change: The Stern Review, Cambridge University Press. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As with all markets, this carbon market arbitrage will soon disappear as governments close the obvious loopholes in realization that a worldwide carbon solution is required to correct mispricings.

    “As with all markets, this carbon market arbitrage will soon disappear as governments close the obvious loopholes in realization that a worldwide carbon solution is required to correct mispricings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    In using point sources of CO2, carbonation is likely to be limited by mineral dissolution, a rate-limitation that can be overcome using bioleaching.

    “In using point sources of CO 2 , carbonation is likely to be limited by mineral dissolution, a rate-limitation that can be overcome using bioleaching.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    An issue with the market mechanism is that price is sometimes less than cost, which can lead to market failure.

    “An issue with the market mechanism is that price is sometimes less than cost, which can lead to market failure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Impending international collective action will establish a global carbon price (through tax, trading or regulation) that is more closely aligned with the SCC.

    “It is certain that impending international collective action will establish a global carbon price (through tax, trading or regulation) that is more closely aligned with the SCC.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    In order to assess the financial viability of the process, one must know both the amount of carbon sequestered and the carbon price.

    “It is evident that in order to assess the financial viability of the process, one must know both the amount of carbon sequestered and the carbon price.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    These innovations should significantly reduce the expected per tonne cost of carbon mineralization, but the widely-used net present value (NPV) approach to capital budgeting will still render these strategies economically unviable, until the market price for carbon price corrects.

    “These innovations should significantly reduce the expected per tonne cost of carbon mineralization, but the widely-used net present value (NPV) approach to capital budgeting will still render these strategies economically unviable, until the market price for carbon price corrects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The carbon mineralization strategies proposed in this review could overcome previous economic challenges to carbon mineralization by using existing ultramafic mine wastes as a feedstock for an industrial (bio)technological process that occurs at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure over decadal timescales, at rates that could become significant for GHG mitigation at mine sites.

    “The carbon mineralization strategies proposed in this review could overcome previous economic challenges to carbon mineralization by using existing ultramafic mine wastes as a feedstock for an industrial (bio)technological process that occurs at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure over decadal timescales, i.e., at rates that could become significant for GHG mitigation at mine sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    In reality, mine managers work within a dynamic operating environment and continuously make decisions over very long time periods such as expanding, contracting, abandoning, or simply waiting for more information before acting.

    “In reality, mine managers work within a dynamic operating environment and continuously make decisions over very long time periods such as expanding, contracting, abandoning, or simply waiting for more information before acting.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Many existing technologies such as bioreactors for biofuels could be adapted for the purpose of carbon mineralization at mine sites.

    “Many existing technologies such as bioreactors for biofuels could be adapted for the purpose of carbon mineralization at mine sites.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The greater the volatility of the carbon price, the more valuable the option will be for the mining company as it will be able to pursue this opportunity with its significant upside potential while the option completely insulates it from low carbon prices.

    “The greater the volatility of the carbon price, the more valuable the option will be for the mining company as it will be able to pursue this opportunity with its significant upside potential while the option completely insulates it from low carbon prices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The buyer of a call option can capture an unlimited upside potential in the increased stock price while limiting the downside loss to only the modest option premium.

    “It is evident that the buyer was able to capture an unlimited upside potential in the increased stock price while limiting the downside loss to only the modest option premium.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Markets self-correct and the carbon market will become more efficient as market forces move the carbon price closer to its intrinsic value.

    “However, markets self-correct and we must recognize that the carbon market will become more efficient as market forces move the carbon price closer to its intrinsic value.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The real options approach recognizes most projects are multi-stage and the decision to proceed, suspend, or abandon the project has value.

    “The real options approach recognizes most projects are multi-stage and the decision to proceed, suspend, or abandon the project has value.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Overcoming the technological challenges of implementing carbon mineralization at mine sites requires investment from mining industry partners to test carbon mineralization processes at the pilot scale.

    “Research teams will continue to advance our understanding of the fundamentals underlying carbon mineralization; however, overcoming the technological challenges of implementing carbon mineralization at mine sites requires investment from mining industry partners to test carbon mineralization processes at the pilot scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisereasoning

    A key difference between real options and the other two models is that real options consider the length of time until a manager must make the decision.

    “A key difference between real options and the other two models is that real options consider the length of time until a manager must make the decision.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overlooking the options-like characteristic of this project could result in poor decision making and a missed opportunity.

    “Overlooking the options-like characteristic of this project could result in poor decision making and a missed opportunity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Enhanced passive carbonation is a relatively simple approach with strategies being as straightforward as increasing the areal footprint of the TSF, yet more extensive carbon mineralization will require more involved engineering strategies.

    “Enhanced passive carbonation is a relatively simple approach with strategies being as straightforward as increasing the areal footprint of the TSF, yet more extensive carbon mineralization will require more involved engineering strategies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Companies who invest in this carbon mineralization technology in uncertain times will have future flexibility and can benefit from having the right, but not the obligation, to shift activities or take action in the future.

    “Companies who invest in this carbon mineralization technology in uncertain times will have future flexibility and can benefit from having the right, but not the obligation, to shift activities or take action in the future.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    One of the main implications of applying real options theory is that it helps companies battle, capitalize on and even befriend uncertainty.

    “One of the main implications of applying real options theory is that it helps companies battle, capitalize on and even befriend uncertainty [157].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [157] Chung, 2013, Pitting real options theory against risk diversification theory: International diversification and joint ownership control in economic crisis, J. World Bus. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The longer the time to maturity and the more volatility in the carbon price, the greater the value of the option.

    “All things considered, the longer the time to maturity and the more volatility in the carbon price, the greater the value of the option.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    This value is driven by five attributes.

    “This value is driven by five attributes [156].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [156] Black, 1973, The pricing of options and corporate liabilities, J. Polit. Econ. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    There is universal recognition that carbon is currently undervalued in the market and this is problematic because there is no economic incentive for companies to reduce emissions.

    “There is universal recognition that carbon is currently undervalued in the market and this is problematic because there is no economic incentive for companies to reduce emissions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
83 of 83

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Complete carbonation of global annual ultramafic and mafic mine tailings is achievable.

    “Assuming complete carbonation, this provides the potential to sequester ~175 Mt CO 2 /year [35].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Complete carbonation of the tailings generated annually at the Mount Keith nickel mine is achievable.

    “For example, complete carbonation of the ~11 Mt of tailings generated annually at the Mount Keith nickel mine in Western Australia [36] would sequester ~4 Mt CO 2 /year as magnesium carbonate minerals such as hydromagnesite [Mg 5 (CO 3 ) 4 (OH) 2 •4H 2 O].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The estimate for annual biomass production assumes a conservative growth rate of about 35 mg dry biomass/L water/day under non-ideal conditions and a lipid content of 11%.

    “The estimate for annual biomass production assumes a conservative growth rate of ~35 mg dry biomass/L water/day under non-ideal conditions and a lipid content of 11%.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Direct carbonation of mine tailings requires both mineral dissolution and carbonate precipitation to occur simultaneously.

    “Direct carbonation of mine tailings requires both mineral dissolution and carbonate precipitation to occur simultaneously.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    In the Scenario A cost analysis, a bioreactor would only be operated at break even taking into account current crude oil prices (~$100/barrel) and the UK carbon floor price of $28 t/CO2.

    “In our cost analysis of Scenario A, we have made the conservative assumption that a bioreactor would only be operated at break even taking into account current crude oil prices (~$100/barrel) and the UK carbon floor price of $28 t/CO 2 .”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    An on-site CO2 source without purification is assumed for the Scenario B cost estimate.

    “Assuming an on-site CO 2 source without purification, we have estimated a cost of $1.5/t CO 2 based on the lower range of costs given in the CCS report by the IPCC [145].”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Only a year's worth of tailings were leached and the Mg was carbonated to form hydromagnesite for the bioleaching offset calculation.

    “assuming that only a year's worth of tailings were leached and that the Mg was carbonated to form hydromagnesite”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Mines commonly operate in remote locations.

    “Mines commonly operate in remote locations”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The UK unilaterally added a carbon tax, a floor of approximately $28 U.S., to prop up the price of carbon.

    “the UK unilaterally added a carbon tax, a floor of approximately $28 U.S. to prop up the price of carbon.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A mining company would only invest in a project if it has a positive NPV because this criterion is consistent with shareholder value maximization.

    “the mining company would only invest in a project if it has a positive NPV because this criterion is consistent with shareholder value maximization.”
10 of 10

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Passive carbonation may be limited by CO2 supply, mineral dissolution, or in rare cases carbonate precipitation.

    “Passive carbonation similar to other forms of carbonation may be limited by: (1) CO2 supply; (2) mineral dissolution; or. in rare cases, (3) carbonate precipitation [80].”

    From Integrated Mineral Carbonation of Ultramafic Mine Deposits—A Review (2018) · cites this paper as [80]

    Section 3.2 says CO2 supply may limit carbon mineralization, and §2.2 links mineral dissolution rates to the Mg available for passive carbonation. Section 2.2 also describes a kinetic limitation on magnesite precipitation, but says hydrated Mg-carbonates precipitate more readily; it does not establish that carbonate precipitation limits passive carbonation only in rare cases. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Carbonation appears to decrease with depth, likely due to isolation of materials from the atmosphere; therefore, management that increases atmospheric exposure is likely to increase carbonation rates throughout the site.

    “Carbonation appears to decrease with depth, likely due to the isolation of materials from the atmosphere; therefore, management that increases atmospheric exposure (e.g., through appropriate planting that takes CO 2 to depth via plant root systems and associated metabolism) is likely to increase carbonation rates throughout the site.14,45,46”

    From Rapid Removal of Atmospheric CO2 by Urban Soils (2015) · cites this paper as [46]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Mount Keith saline-water use is reported as both 11 GL and 7.9 GL

    Minor

    The paper gives approximately 11 GL per year as Mount Keith's saline-water use, but later gives approximately 7,900 ML (7.9 GL) for the same quantity. The latter figure is also consistent with the table's total water use minus high-quality water use.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. McCutcheon, J., Power, I.M., Harrison, A., Small, D., Pirani, A., Dipple, G., and Southam, G. (2012, January 24–29). Microbially-Accelerated Carbon Sequestration: Magnesium Carbonate Mineralization in Mine Waste. Proceedings of 22nd V.M. Goldschmidt Conference, Montréal, QC, Canada.
  2. Brown, A., Figueroa, L., and Wolkersdorfer, C. (2013, January 6–9). Strategies for Enhancing Carbon Sequestration in Mg-Rich Mine Tailings. Proceedings of International Mine Water Association 2013 Annual Conference, Denver, CO, USA.
  3. Jambor, 2003, Chapter 10. The Microbiology of Acid Mine Drainage, Environmental Aspects of Mine Wastes, Volume 31, 203
  4. Stumm, W., and Morgan, J.J. (1996). Aquatic Chemistry—Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural Waters, Wiley. [3rd ed.].
  5. Tchobanoglous, G., Burton, F.L., and Stensel, H.D. (2003). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, McGraw-Hill. [4th ed.].
  6. Metz, B., Davidson, O., de Coninck, H., Loos, M., and Meyer, L.A. (2005). IPCC Special Report on Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage, Cambridge University Press.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Power, I., McCutcheon, J., Harrison, A., Wilson, S., Dipple, G., Kelly, S., Southam, C., & Southam, G.
Affiliations
  • University of British Columbia (CA)
  • The University of Queensland (AU)
  • Monash University (AU)
  • Bond University (AU)
Corresponding author
Power, Ian
ORCID
Venue
Minerals
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2014-05-02
Volume
4
Issue
2
Pages
399-436
ISSN
2075-163X (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/min4020399
OpenAlex
W1966878594
Semantic Scholar
fe432d875ff7a0e7a8bd21abeff83b5e7e1754cc
Cited by
87
References
144
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 7 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 2
FWCI
2.81
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Minerals (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • Bond University Research Portal (Bond University) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • e-publications@bond (Bond University) (submittedVersion)
  • BORIS (University Library Bern) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • cIRcle (University of British Columbia) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-sa)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
  • Open Collections
  • Open Access CRIS of the University of Bern
  • Abstracts with programs - Geological Society of America
Funders
  • Carbon Management Canada
  • Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Engineering › CO2 Sequestration and Geologic Interactions
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Civil and Structural Engineering › Tailings Management and Properties
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Mine drainage and remediation techniques
Keywords
carbon mineralization, mine tailings, carbon sequestration, tailings management, pilot project, emissions trading, Diavik Diamond Mine, CO2 fixation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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