Non‐invasive Analyte Access and Sensing through Eccrine Sweat: Challenges and Outlook circa 2016
Abstract
Despite the many ergonomic advantages of eccrine perspiration (sweat) compared to other possible biofluids (particularly in “wearable” devices), sweat remains an underrepresented source of biomarker analytes compared to the established biofluids blood, urine, and saliva. Upon closer comparison to other non‐invasive biofluids, the advantages may even extend beyond ergonomics: sweat might provide superior analyte information. A number of challenges, however, have historically kept sweat from its place in the pantheon of clinical samples. These challenges include very low sample volumes (nL to µL), unknown concentration due to evaporation, filtration and dilution of large analytes, mixing of old and new sweat, and the potential for contamination from the skin surface. More recently, rapid progress in “wearable” sweat sampling and sensing devices has resolved several of the historical challenges. However, this recent progress has also been limited to high concentration analytes (µM to mM) sampled at high sweat rates (>1 nL/min/gland, e.g. athletics). Progress will be much more challenging as sweat biosensing moves towards use with sedentary users (low sweat rates or not sweating at all) and/or towards low concentration analytes (pM to nM). Addressing these unresolved challenges will require significant advances in sweat stimulation, sample collection efficiency, compact sensors, and likely more. Fortunately, none of the remaining challenges appear to be fundamentally blocking, and scientific and engineering innovations have the opportunity to enable broader application of sweat biosensing technology.
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A critical turning point occurred in 2016 when Gao published a fully integrated array sweat sensor in Nature that simultaneously and selectively measured sweat metabolites and electrolytes without external analysis.
“A critical turning points occurred in 2016, when Gao 56 published research on a fully integrated array sweat sensor in Nature that simultaneously and selectively measured sweat metabolites and electrolytes without requiring external analysis 57 .”
From A review of sampling, energy supply and intelligent monitoring for long-term sweat sensors (2022) · cites this paper as [57]
Sweat provides an ideal source toward the continuous and noninvasive measurement of biomarkers, such as sodium, chlorine, potassium, lactate, calcium, glucose, ammonia, ethanol, urea, cortisol, and various neuropeptides and cytokines.
“Sweat provides an ideal source toward the continuous and noninvasive measurement of biomarkers, such as sodium, chlorine, potassium, lactate, calcium, glucose, ammonia, ethanol, urea, cortisol, and various neuropeptides and cytokines.18”
From Wearable sensors for monitoring the physiological and biochemical profile of the athlete (2019) · cites this paper as [18]
Disadvantages of using eccrine sweat include skin contamination, existence of dried sweat on the glands thereby skewing analyte measurements, and low-sampling rates.
“Disadvantages of using eccrine sweat, include skin contamination, existence of dried sweat on the glands thereby skewing analyte measurements, and low-sampling rates.18”
From Wearable sensors for monitoring the physiological and biochemical profile of the athlete (2019) · cites this paper as [18]
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Heikenfeld, J.
- Affiliations
- University of Cincinnati (US)
- Corresponding author
- Heikenfeld, Jason
- ORCID
- Heikenfeld, Jason
- Venue
- Electroanalysis
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2016-03-21
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1242-1249
- ISSN
- 1040-0397 (ISSN-L)
- 1521-4109
- OpenAlex
- W2302659947
- Cited by
- 294
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 33 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 41 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 6
- FWCI
- 15.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Electroanalysis (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Univ. of Cincinnati provided by the National Science Foundation (1347725)
- Air Force Research Labs 711th Human Performance Wing
- USAF (FA8650-15-C-6625)
- Center for Advanced Design and Manufacturing of Integrated Microfluidics (IIP-1362165)
- Univ. of Cincinnati College of Pharmacy
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Electrochemical sensors and biosensors
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Advanced Sensor and Energy Harvesting Materials
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biosensors and Analytical Detection
- Keywords
- eccrine sweat, wearable sensors, sweat sampling, low-concentration analytes, sweat biomarkers
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