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Cited by 54Neuroethics, Human Enhancement, Biomedical InnovationsPhilosophical Ethics and TheoryPhilosophy, Sociology, Political Theory

Natural Selection, Childrearing, and the Ethics of Marriage (and Divorce): Building a Case for the Neuroenhancement of Human Relationships

Open access
Earp, Brian D., Sandberg, Anders, Savulescu, Julian·2012·Philosophy & Technology
DOI 10.1007/s13347-012-0081-8PMC PMC3510696
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Abstract

We argue that the fragility of contemporary marriages-and the corresponding high rates of divorce-can be explained (in large part) by a three-part mismatch: between our relationship values, our evolved psychobiological natures, and our modern social, physical, and technological environment. "Love drugs" could help address this mismatch by boosting our psychobiologies while keeping our values and our environment intact. While individual couples should be free to use pharmacological interventions to sustain and improve their romantic connection, we suggest that they may have an obligation to do so as well, in certain cases. Specifically, we argue that couples with offspring may have a special responsibility to enhance their relationships for the sake of their children. We outline an evolutionarily informed research program for identifying promising biomedical enhancements of love and commitment.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper argues that contemporary marriage fragility and high divorce rates are largely explained by a three-part mismatch between modern relationship values, evolved psychobiological natures, and the modern environment. It proposes that “love drugs” could help couples—especially parents—sustain relationships, and outlines an evolutionarily informed research program for neuroenhancing love and commitment.

Key findings

  • The authors argue that marriage breakdown can be explained in large part by tension among evolved drives, contemporary marriage values, and modern social/physical/technological conditions; they use sexual fidelity and adultery as a central illustration.
  • They report that more than half of marriages end in divorce, more than half of all divorces involve minor children, 40% of young people experience parental divorce before adulthood, and over a million US children go through it each year.
  • They claim children of divorce suffer “in virtually every measure of a child’s well-being,” and cite Forehand et al. (1997) as evidence that adolescents from unhappy intact marriages functioned similarly to those in happy intact families but better than those in divorced families.
  • They propose a duty-based case: parents have an obligation to protect children from harm, divorce harms children, so parents may have an obligation to preserve and enhance their relationship—possibly through pharmacological intervention when other methods fail.
  • They outline candidate mechanisms including oxytocin, vasopressin, dopamine, testosterone, and MDMA-like drugs, citing vole pair-bonding studies and a study in which nasally inhaled oxytocin reduced stress and promoted positive communication during couple conflict.

Methods

  • Conceptual and normative ethical analysis, not an empirical study; the paper reviews and synthesizes literature from evolutionary psychology, neuroscience, family studies, and law.
  • It develops arguments around marital autonomy, parental obligation, the “principle of default natural ethics,” and an evolutionary heuristic for enhancement.
  • It proposes an evolutionarily informed research program targeting brain systems for lust, attraction, and attachment, with pharmacological candidates such as oxytocin, vasopressin, dopamine-related agents, testosterone, and entactogens.

Limitations

  • The authors state that love drugs are not a panacea, would not fix every relationship problem, and some marriages may be too dysfunctional for any treatment; they also say much more research is needed and that the context of hormone administration is crucial.
  • They acknowledge that evidence on divorce harms to children is mostly correlational, though they cite Forehand et al. as a comparison study; they also note uncertainty about whether human attachment relies on the same hormonal machinery as in voles.
  • They state that the trade-off between parent welfare and child welfare may not be clear-cut, and that divorce may sometimes be morally justifiable, including in cases of abuse.
  • Evident from the text: the paper offers no original data, and its ethical conclusions depend on empirical premises and speculative future interventions whose safety and efficacy are not yet established.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1007/s13347-012-0081-8

Cites

89 of 89 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

11 of 112 cited sources checked · 8 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Committed, stable marriages conduce to happiness and well-being on a variety of standard measures.

    “committed, stable marriages conduce to happiness and well-being on a variety of standard measures (Wilson and Oswald 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson and Oswald 2005 source
  • Premisecitation

    Variations in a dopamine receptor gene have been found to correlate in humans with infidelity and sexual promiscuity.

    “Variations in a dopamine receptor gene have been found to correlate in humans with infidelity and sexual promiscuity (Garcia et al. 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Garcia et al. 2010 source
  • Premisecitation

    Administering oxytocin increases the subjective experience of attachment security in males with insecure attachment patterns.

    “and it increases the subjective experience of attachment security in males with insecure attachment patterns (Buchheim et al. 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buchheim et al. 2009 source
  • Premisecitation

    Oxytocin is involved in counteracting fear.

    “as well as in counteracting fear (Kirsch et al. 2005)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kirsch et al. 2005 source
  • Premisecitation

    A successful marriage is one of the greatest predictors of robust well-being, boosting physical and emotional health, self-reported happiness, and longevity.

    “And indeed a successful marriage is one of the greatest predictors of robust well-being that we know of, boosting physical and emotional health, self-reported happiness, and longevity just to start (Wilson and Oswald 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilson and Oswald 2005 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 23
  • May combine two claims. 43

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Puritanical sexual attitudes in the USA, coupled with abstinence-only sex education policies, lead to higher teen pregnancy rates and increased transmission of STIs among American religious youths.

    “It has been argued that Puritanical sexual attitudes in the USA, coupled with abstinence-only sex education policies, lead to such “backfiring” ills as higher teen pregnancy rates and increased transmission of STIs among American religious youths (Stanger-Hall and Hall 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stanger-Hall and Hall 2011 source

      The Abstract and Discussion report that stronger abstinence-only policies correlate with higher state-level teen pregnancy rates. The Discussion also reports studies associating comprehensive education with lower HIV/STD risk than strict abstinence-only education. The paper does not establish the claimed combined causal effect of Puritanical attitudes and those policies, or report pregnancy and STI outcomes specifically among religious youths. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Administering oxytocin enhances recognition of face identities, but not nonsocial stimuli.

    “Administering oxytocin enhances recognition of face identities, but not nonsocial stimuli (Rimmele et al. 2009)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rimmele et al. 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    By heightening sexual desire in the less aroused partner or reducing it in the more aroused partner, the discrepancy could be minimized, possibly softening a major source of relationship strain.

    “By heightening sexual desire in the less aroused partner (by using testosterone, for instance, see Braunstein et al. 2005; Sherwin 2002; Sherwin and Gelfand 1987; Sherwin et al. 1985) or reducing it in the more aroused partner, the discrepancy could be minimized, possibly softening a major source of relationship strain.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Braunstein et al. 2005 source
    • cites Sherwin 2002 source
    • cites Sherwin and Gelfand 1987 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin is involved in nursing behavior, trust, and 'mind-reading'.

    “Oxytocin is also involved in nursing behavior, trust, and “mind-reading” (Domes et al. 2007; Kosfeld et al. 2005)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Domes et al. 2007 source
    • cites Kosfeld et al. 2005 source

      The Abstract reports that intranasal oxytocin increased trust in humans and describes its role in milk letdown and maternal care, which supports the nursing-related part. Our copy does not address “mind-reading” (searched for mental-state and emotion recognition), so Kosfeld et al. does not support that part of the sentence. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin and vasopressin buttress many areas of interpersonal interaction: managing social stress, fostering emotion recognition and memory for social information.

    “These hormones buttress many areas of interpersonal interaction: managing social stress, fostering emotion recognition and memory for social information, and so on (Meyer-Lindenberg et al. 2011; Insel et al. 1994; Heinrichs et al. 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Meyer-Lindenberg et al. 2011 source
    • cites Insel et al. 1994 source

      The paper’s introductory discussion (page not supplied) reports that vasopressin facilitates social memory in rats and alters squirrel monkeys’ behavioral response to social separation; it also reports that oxytocin facilitates selective affiliation in female prairie voles. It does not establish that these hormones manage social stress or foster emotion recognition. The cited evidence is chiefly about animal social behavior, not the full range of interpersonal functions claimed. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Heinrichs et al. 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Our conscious values aim at our flourishing directly.

    “Our conscious values, in contrast, aim at our flourishing directly.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Love drugs could help address the mismatch by boosting psychobiologies while keeping values and environment intact.

    ““Love drugs” could help address this mismatch by boosting our psychobiologies while keeping our values and our environment intact.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adolescents from unhappy marriages functioned similarly to those who would remain in happy intact families, but better than those in the divorced group, suggesting differences can be attributed to parental divorce and its accompanying disruption of family processes.

    “adolescents from the [unhappy marriages] functioned similarly to those who would remain in [happy] intact families, but better than those in the… divorced group, suggesting that differences can be attributed to parental divorce and its accompanying disruption of family processes”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Forehand et al. 1997 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Infidelity leads to emotional and physical distress, decreased relationship quality, and a list of other ills.

    “Infidelity leads to emotional and physical distress, decreased relationship quality (if it can sustain the blow at all—see below), and a list of other ills (Buss 1995).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buss 1995 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Study design and conductnone given

    A single study cannot be considered conclusive.

    “A single study cannot be considered conclusive, but Forehand et al. do raise the important point of mechanism”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Nasally inhaled oxytocin can reduce stress levels and promote more positive communication between couples engaged in an argument.

    “In one study, Swiss researchers showed that nasally inhaled oxytocin can reduce stress levels and promote more positive communication between couples engaged in an argument (Ditzen et al. 2009).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ditzen et al. 2009 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The parent has already gone through childhood and adolescence and has survived the most vulnerable stages of human development; the child has not.

    “The parent has already gone through childhood and, presumably, adolescence and has thus survived the most vulnerable stages of human development; the child has not.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    We lack the suite of external forces that kept seventeenth century marriages intact today, so marriages are much more likely to rise and fall on the emotional bonds holding them together.

    “We lack this suite of forces today, so marriages are much more likely to rise and fall on the back of the emotional bonds holding them together (Coontz 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Coontz 2005

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Natural selection did not organize our mating strategies, nor our psychosexual natures, with modern relationship values in mind, and the resulting tension can cause a great deal of trouble.

    “In simplest terms, natural selection did not organize our mating strategies, nor our psychosexual natures, with modern relationship values in mind—and the resulting tension can cause a great deal of trouble.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Symons (1985)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The parent elected to enter the marriage in the first place, in full knowledge that it might grow tough; the child did not elect to be born and came into the world totally dependent upon parental care.

    “The parent elected to enter the marriage in the first place, as Amato and Booth point out, in full knowledge that it might grow tough; the child did not elect to be born and came into the world totally dependent upon parental care.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Amato and Booth

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisereasoning

    Cultural forces have a very large role to play in any convincing explanation of human behavior.

    “Cultural forces, then, have a very large role to play in any convincing explanation of human behavior”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Extramarital sex often leads to extramarital love, and hence the formation of a strong bond that could take time and energy directly away from existing offspring.

    “Indeed, extramarital sex often leads to extramarital love (Buss 1995), and hence, the formation of a strong bond that could take time and energy directly away from existing offspring.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buss 1995 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sexist norms do not nullify human instincts or the pain caused by a philandering spouse.

    “Sexist norms do not nullify human instincts or the pain caused by a philandering spouse.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Homo sapiens is the product of evolution by natural selection; we are designed to promote gene, not individual, survival; reproductive, not marital success.

    “in analyzing the psychological underpinning of marriage [we should] keep in mind that Homo sapiens is the product of evolution by natural selection; we are designed to promote gene, not individual, survival; reproductive, not marital success”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Symons (1985)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    In some cases, traditional counseling may be insufficient to get a couple over the initial hump of their marital difficulties, and love drugs could give them the boost they need.

    “In some cases, traditional counseling may be insufficient to get a couple “over the initial hump” of their marital difficulties, and love drugs could give them the boost they need.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Evolutionary theory can give us a head start in asking productive research questions, pointing us in the direction of the most plausible pharmacological candidates and giving us a sense of how they might reasonably serve to enhance relationships.

    “we think that evolutionary theory can give us a head start in asking productive research questions, pointing us in the direction of the most plausible pharmacological candidates and giving us a sense of how they might reasonably serve to enhance relationships.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Some marriages may be so dysfunctional that any sort of treatment would be bound to fail.

    “some marriages may be so dysfunctional that any sort of treatment would be bound to fail.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Love drugs are not a panacea: they could not fix every relationship problem for every couple.

    “Love drugs are not a panacea: we do not suggest that they could “fix” every relationship problem for every couple, even as our understanding of neurochemistry advances”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Evolutionary theory suggests that having sex outside principal reproductive alliances would be strongly selected, increasing the inclusive fitness of both sexes, though for different reasons and to different degrees.

    “Evolutionary theory suggests that this behavior would be strongly selected, increasing the inclusive fitness of both sexes—though for different reasons (and to different degrees) in each case.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Trivers 1972

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Love drugs would target directly the psychobiological factors which underlie relationship instability, and could do so across a range of common cases.

    “This is because love drugs would target, directly, the psychobiological factors which underlie relationship instability, and could do so across a range of common cases, as we will show.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sexual fidelity is widely considered a virtue, and adultery is considered a serious moral failure, even a sin.

    “Sexual fidelity is widely considered a virtue; adultery is considered a serious moral failure (see Winking et al. 2007), even a sin.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Winking et al. 2007 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The ultimate test of love drugs is whether or not they work.

    “The ultimate test of love drugs, of course, is whether or not they work—the calculus of natural selection aside”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Jealousy keeps parents' attention focused on each other and on their childrearing obligations, and raises the cost of giving in to sexual temptation.

    “This is because it keeps the parents' attention focused on each other, and on their childrearing obligations, and raises the cost of giving in to sexual temptation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Insofar as we have inherited the anatomical, biological, and psychological architecture of our forebears, we have a hard-wired desire for a limited form of primary partner commitment as well as a powerful, sex-lopsided urge for extra-pair copulation over the life course.

    “Insofar as we have inherited the anatomical, biological, and psychological architecture of our forebears, we have a hard-wired desire for a (limited) form of primary partner commitment as well as a powerful, sex-lopsided urge for extra-pair copulation over the life course12 (see Symons 1987, 1992; Tooby and Cosmides 1992; Buss 1994; Barash and Lipton 1997).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Symons 1987, 1992

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Tooby and Cosmides 1992 source
    • cites Buss 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Due to sex-related asymmetries in the minimum parental investment required for offspring survival, comparatively wanton promiscuity would further the genetic interests of ancestral human males; comparatively selective promiscuity would further the genetic interests of ancestral human females; and perfect, full-fledged monogamy would have been maladaptive for both.

    “due to sex-related asymmetries in the minimum parental investment required for offspring survival (Trivers 1972), comparatively wanton promiscuity would further the genetic interests of ancestral human males; comparatively selective promiscuity would further the genetic interests of ancestral human females; and perfect, full-fledged monogamy would have been maladaptive for both.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Trivers 1972

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Our ancestors did form cooperative pair bonds, and fragile, dependent hominid babies required substantial biparental care for approximately the first 4 years of life.

    “Though our ancestors did form cooperative pair bonds, and while fragile, dependent hominid babies required substantial biparental care for approximately the first 4 years of life (Fisher 2000)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fisher 2000 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    We have only limited control over which bonding system is activated: activation is influenced by unconscious factors such as shifting hormone levels.

    “Yet, we have only limited control over which system is activated: activation is influenced by unconscious factors such as shifting hormone levels.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eastwick 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Rape is natural-it exists in our primate relatives and may have been adaptive for low-status ancestral human males.

    “Rape, for instance, is certainly natural—it exists in our primate relatives and may have been adaptive for low-status ancestral human males (Wrangham and Peterson 1997)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wrangham and Peterson 1997

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a recent survey, 93% of married American respondents cited love as a main reason for getting married, while financial stability was the least offered reason at 31%.

    “In a recent survey, fully 93 % of married American respondents cited love as a main reason for getting married,18 while financial stability was the least offered reason, at 31 % (Pew Research Center 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Pew Research Center 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Our evolutionary past may have produced a mixed strategy of short-term versus long-term bonding, and systems for both approaches are wired into our brains.

    “Eastwick (2009) argues that our evolutionary past may have produced a mixed strategy of short-term versus long-term bonding, and systems for both approaches are wired into our brains.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eastwick 2009 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    People frequently behave in ways that are consistent with their deepest drives and impulses, moral ideals notwithstanding, and efforts of the state be damned.

    “As we have already pointed out, concurring with Eric Fromm, people frequently behave in ways that are consistent with their deepest drives and impulses, moral ideals notwithstanding, and efforts of the state be damned.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fromm

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Love drugs' effect is direct: it would really be as simple as swallowing a pill.

    “one advantage to love drugs is that their effect is direct: it would really be as simple as “swallowing a pill.””
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: We have the capacity to alter hormone levels controlling the human sex drive.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Biomedical workarounds are accomplished through human agency and technology, not brought about by natural selection.

    “But instead of being brought about by natural selection, biomedical workarounds are accomplished through human agency and technology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Suppressed natural drives creep out, sometimes with dire consequences.

    “Suppressed natural drives creep out. Sometimes the consequences are dire.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Contemporary marriage is founded on the personal desires, goals, and interests of autonomous partners, with love for one another playing the uncontested linchpin.

    “Contemporary marriage is founded on the personal desires, goals, and interests of autonomous partners, with their love for one another playing the uncontested linchpin.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    We might be running on the short-term system when we (or our partners) would prefer a long-term bond-or vice versa.

    “We might be running on the short-term system when we (or our partners) would prefer a long-term bond—or vice versa.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Love is fragile.

    “But love is fragile.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fromm was writing when the scientific study of human psychology was in its very infancy, when knowledge of brain chemistry was essentially nil, and when attempts to modify the cerebrum were limited to electroshock therapy and lobotomies.

    “Fromm was writing when the scientific study of human psychology was in its very infancy, when our knowledge of brain chemistry was essentially nil, and when attempts to modify the cerebrum were limited to electroshock therapy and Frankenstein-like lobotomies (White 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites White 2011

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Contemporary Western marriage ideals include free entry by autonomous consenting individuals, initiation and sustenance by romantic love, primary orientation to personal happiness of spouses, companionship rather than child production, and lifelong monogamous fidelity.

    “According to the basic stereotype, contemporary Western marriages should have the following hallmarks. They should be entered into freely by (two) autonomous, consenting individuals; they should be initiated and sustained by the power of romantic love, and they should conduce first and foremost to the personal happiness of the married individuals themselves (Coontz 2004; Spaht 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Coontz 2004 source
    • cites Spaht 1998

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Lombardo and Lombardo 2008

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    More sex-positive cultures exhibit much lower rates of teen pregnancy and STIs, as well as greater psychosexual health.

    “More sex-positive cultures—cultures, that is, that do not regard sex among young, unmarried persons as inherently immoral—exhibit much lower rates of both, as well as greater psychosexual health: Holland is the paradigm example (de Waal 2010).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites de Waal 2010

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Heavy-handed regulation of human mating arrangements typically backfires or is largely ignored.

    “Yet heavy-handed regulation of human mating arrangements typically has precisely these effects (Davis 1985; Coontz 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Davis 1985

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Coontz 2005

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Natural selection could not anticipate our romantic and parenting needs in the modern era, nor could it plan ahead for shifts in adaptive trade-offs occurring over evolutionary time.

    “It obviously could not anticipate our romantic and parenting needs in the modern era, nor could it “plan ahead” for any of the shifts in adaptive trade-offs occurring over evolutionary time.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Neuroenhancement could supplement and improve marriage counseling and other self-help methods to good effect.

    “And while neuroenhancement would not replace marriage counseling and other self-help methods, it could certainly supplement and improve those well-worn measures to good effect.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Love drugs meet the evolutionary heuristic outlined above: the situational trade-offs that shaped our pair-bonding brain systems in the environment of evolutionary adaptation have changed radically in the modern era.

    “And love drugs in particular meet the evolutionary heuristic outlined above: the situational trade-offs that shaped our pair-bonding brain systems in the environment of evolutionary adaptation have changed radically in the modern era.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Our marriage values may conflict with our naturally selected drives in the present day.

    “While our marriage values may conflict with our naturally selected drives in the present day,”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationcitation

    This outcome might be carried out through effects on libido, sensation-seeking, or impulsivity.

    “This outcome might be carried out through effects on libido, sensation-seeking, or impulsivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Much of the fragility in modern relationships could (and should) be overcome by a program of neuroenhancement of love and commitment, based on a keen understanding of the latter's evolutionary roots.

    “Accordingly, we have argued that much of the fragility in modern relationships could (and should) be overcome by a program of neuroenhancement of love and commitment, based on a keen understanding of the latter's evolutionary roots.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Deeply rooted, long-lasting love, and healthy, intact families have value to human beings far beyond their usefulness in promoting inclusive fitness.
    • Rests on an assumption: Successful marriages are in the best interests of families.
    • Rests on an assumption: The fragility in modern relationships is a problem that should be overcome.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    It has not yet been shown conclusively that human attachment relies on the same hormonal machinery.

    “It has not yet been shown conclusively that human attachment relies on the same hormonal machinery, but it does seem plausible that such a system would be highly conserved (Fisher et al. 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fisher et al. 2006 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Synthetically boosting oxytocin levels in a marriage context could reduce stress, promote trust, and encourage pro-social behaviors, thereby breaking the negative feedback loops plaguing certain relationships.

    “Synthetically boosting oxytocin levels in a marriage context, then, could reduce stress, promote trust, and encourage pro-social behaviors, thereby breaking the negative feedback loops plaguing certain relationships.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two closely related vole species employ either a monogamous or a polygamous mating strategy, and the difference appears to depend heavily upon the expression of oxytocin and vasopressin.

    “Two closely related species employ either a monogamous or a polygamous mating strategy, and the difference appears to depend heavily upon the expression of these hormones.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Deliberately moderating testosterone levels in the right way could promote male parenting and discourage a wandering eye.

    “deliberately moderating these levels in the right way could promote male parenting and discourage a wandering eye.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Marriage is a protean institution, having adapted to fit the mores, politics, and economic molding of each generation across cultures and time since the dawn of recorded history.

    “Marriage is a protean institution, having adapted to fit the mores, politics, and economic molding of each generation across cultures and time since the dawn of recorded history.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    If the dopamine process can be triggered artificially, such an intervention could be used to reinforce pair bonds when the partners were in close contact-in a marriage counseling session, for example.

    “If so, such an intervention could be used to reinforce pair bonds when the partners were in close contact—in a marriage counseling session, for example.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Oxytocin is released in other animals by stroking and in humans by frequent partner hugging, which also reduces stress.

    “Oxytocin is released in other animals by stroking and in humans by frequent partner hugging, which also reduces stress (Light et al. 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Light et al. 2005 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Entactogens promote emotional openness and the reduction of anxiety.

    “as well as emotional openness and the reduction of anxiety (Vollenweider et al. 1998).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Vollenweider et al. 1998 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Insofar as marriage and marriage-like institutions codify our deepest needs for pair-bonding and meaningful attachment, they can-if properly designed and managed-strike a certain unique harmony with our evolved natures.

    “insofar as marriage and marriage-like institutions codify our deepest needs for pair-bonding and meaningful attachment (more important than ever before in the modern world) they can—if properly designed and managed—strike a certain unique harmony with our evolved natures.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Marriage and marriage-like institutions codify our deepest needs for pair-bonding and meaningful attachment.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Testosterone levels fall naturally in men upon marriage or the birth of a child and rise naturally at a relationship's end.

    “In fact, testosterone levels fall naturally in men upon marriage or the birth of a child and rise naturally at a relationship's end (to encourage novel mate-seeking behaviors, see Eastwick 2009):”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Eastwick 2009 source
62 of 62

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Parents have an obligation to protect their children from harm, all else being equal.

    “Parents have an obligation to protect their children from harm, all else being equal.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    In many cases, the only way to preserve and enhance relationships for the sake of offspring is through pharmacological intervention, in conjunction with other more conventional strategies like couple's therapy.

    “In many cases, the only way 5 to do this is through pharmacological intervention, in conjunction with other more conventional strategies like couple's therapy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most modern marriage vows entail an explicit promise by the couple to be sexually exclusive to each other.

    “Most modern marriage vows entail an explicit promise by the couple involved to be sexually exclusive to each other.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Sex is now decoupled from mandatory reproduction thanks to birth control technology, making extra-pair copulation less likely to result in unwanted offspring.

    “Sex is now decoupled from mandatory reproduction—thanks to birth control technology—making extra-pair copulation less likely to result in unwanted offspring.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Condoms reduce the risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections, dropping traditional direct costs of infidelity.

    “Condoms in particular reduce the risk of contracting sexually transmitted infections, dropping traditional (direct) costs of infidelity even further.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Divorce itself is harmful, on balance, to children when they are involved.

    “and we know that divorce itself is harmful, on balance, to children when they are involved.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    We have the capacity to alter hormone levels controlling the human sex drive.

    “We certainly have the capacity to alter hormone levels controlling the human sex drive.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Sometimes a great deal of higher-order suffering can be traced to problems in neurophysiology.

    “Sometimes a great deal of “higher-order” suffering (whether for an individual considered on her own, or within the context of a relationship) can be traced to problems in neurophysiology.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Improved health and nutrition lead to greater longevity.

    “We would not want to backpedal on such new-found goods as improved health and nutrition, which lead to greater longevity—even though a longer life means more opportunities, over time, for extramarital sexual temptation.16”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Deeply rooted, long-lasting love, and healthy, intact families have value to human beings far beyond their usefulness in promoting inclusive fitness.

    “Deeply rooted, long-lasting love, and healthy, intact families have value to human beings far beyond their usefulness in promoting inclusive fitness.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Successful marriages are in the best interests of families.

    “Successful marriages are also in the best interests of families, and their breakdown, when children are involved, should be avoided whenever possible.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Marriage and marriage-like institutions codify our deepest needs for pair-bonding and meaningful attachment.

    “insofar as marriage and marriage-like institutions codify our deepest needs for pair-bonding and meaningful attachment (more important than ever before in the modern world)”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The fragility in modern relationships is a problem that should be overcome.

    “Accordingly, we have argued that much of the fragility in modern relationships could (and should) be overcome by a program of neuroenhancement of love and commitment, based on a keen understanding of the latter's evolutionary roots.”
13 of 13

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

14 of the 103 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 12

  1. Barash, D. P., & Lipton, J. E. (1997). Making sense of sex: how genes and gender influence our relationships. Washington: Island Press.
  2. Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1988). Homicide. Hawthorne: Aldine de Gruyter.
  3. Davis, K. (1985). The meaning and significance of marriage in contemporary society. In K. Davis (Ed.), Contemporary marriage. New York: Russell.
  4. Johnson, C. A., Stanley, S. M., Glenn, N. D., Amato, P. A., Nock, S. L., Markman, H. J., et al. (2002). Marriage in Oklahoma: 2001 baseline statewide survey on marriage and divorce (S02096 OKDHS). Oklahoma City: Oklahoma Department of Human Services.
  5. Lombardo, T., & Lombardo, J. (2008). The evolution and future direction of marriage. In C. Wagner (Ed.), World future 2008: seeing the future through new eyes (p. 2008). Bethesda: World Future Society.
  6. Nichols, J. A. (1998). Louisiana’s covenant marriage law: a first step toward a more robust pluralism in marriage and divorce law. Emory Law Journal, 47, 929–1001.
  7. Savulescu, J., & Earp, B. D. (2011, May 6). ‘No smoking’ signs trigger urge to light up: communism, marriage, evidence-based medicine and the fate of the world. Practical Ethics (Blog). University of Oxford.
  8. Spaht, K. (1998). For the sake of the children: recapturing the meaning of marriage. Notre Dame Law Review, 73(5), 1547–1579.
  9. Symons, D. (1985). Darwinism and contemporary marriage. In K. Davis (Ed.), Contemporary marriage (pp. 133–155). New York: Russell Sage.
  10. Symons, D. (1987). If we're all Darwinians, what's the fuss about? In C. B. Crawford, M. F. Smith, & D. L. Krebs (Eds.), Sociobiology and psychology. Hillsdale: Erlbaum.
  11. Wallerstein, J., & Blakeslee, S. (1995). The good marriage. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
  12. Williams, B., Sawyer, S. C., & Wahlstrom, C. M. (2005). Marriages, families, and intimate relationships. Boston: Pearson.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Earp, B. D., Sandberg, A., & Savulescu, J.
Affiliations
University of Oxford (GB)
Corresponding author
Earp, Brian D.
ORCID
Venue
Philosophy & Technology
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2012-07-05
Volume
25
Issue
4
Pages
561-587
ISSN
  • 2210-5433 (ISSN-L)
  • 2210-5441
DOI
10.1007/s13347-012-0081-8
PMC
PMC3510696
OpenAlex
W2170934054
Semantic Scholar
ed4324439320d958327f6227338427b902ce0968
Cited by
54
References
103
Citations by year
2024: 4 · 2023: 1 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 1 · 2019: 2 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 6 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 8 · 2013: 5
FWCI
2.62
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Philosophy & Technology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • PhilPapers (PhilPapers Foundation) (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neuroethics, Human Enhancement, Biomedical Innovations
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Philosophy › Philosophical Ethics and Theory
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Philosophy, Sociology, Political Theory
Keywords
cognitive enhancement, marriage, divorce, parenting, evolutionary mismatch, commitment, ethics of enhancement

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-08.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-08.

Cited sources are checked by gpt-6-sol.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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