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The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies
Open accessAbstract
An increase in time spent on screen-based technologies has been suggested to underlie recent increases in mental health problems among young people. However, this hypothesis has primarily been based on the findings of cross-sectional studies. The aim of the current review was to provide a comprehensive overview of longitudinal studies examining the relationship between screen time and internalising mental health symptoms. PsycINFO, PubMed/Medline and EMBASE were systematically searched for articles published up to August 2020. Thirty-five studies, with sample sizes ranging from 126 to 12,866 participants, met inclusion criteria. The association between screen time and subsequent depressive symptoms was found to be small to very small in size. There was limited evidence of any reverse association between depressive symptoms and subsequent screen time. The association between screen time and depressive symptoms varied between different devices and uses. In contrast to depressive symptoms, evidence to support longitudinal associations between screen time and other internalising mental health symptoms, including anxiety, self-esteem, and general internalising problems, was lacking. Together, these results suggest that the impact of increased screen time on the prevalence of mental health problems among young people is likely to be negligible or small. Further longitudinal studies that examine screen content and motivations underlying screen use are required to better discern any relationship between screen time and internalising mental health symptoms.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
This systematic review of 35 longitudinal studies found that screen time is associated with subsequent depressive symptoms only small to very small in size, with limited evidence of a reverse association and little support for anxiety, self-esteem, or general internalising symptoms. The authors conclude that increased screen time is unlikely to account for substantial rises in youth mental health problems and call for research on screen content and motivations.
Key findings
- Across 35 longitudinal studies with sample sizes from 126 to 12,866 participants, the association between screen time and subsequent depressive symptoms was small to very small; among comparable studies, effect sizes were around r = 0.10, and some studies reported non-significant associations.
- Evidence for the reverse association—depressive symptoms predicting later screen time—was limited; most studies found no significant association, although some analyses using sophisticated methods reported bidirectional associations.
- Associations varied by device/use: there was relatively stronger evidence for mobile phone and computer/internet use with subsequent depression, limited evidence for television and videogames, and mixed evidence for social media. Evidence for longitudinal associations with anxiety, self-esteem, and other internalising symptoms was lacking or limited.
- Sex differences were apparent across the body of work but inconsistent in direction and medium type; few studies analysed sex separately.
Methods
- Systematic review following PRISMA guidelines, registered with PROSPERO (CRD42020180145). PsycINFO, PubMed/Medline, and EMBASE were searched from 2005 to 4 August 2020, plus hand searches; 5505 records were identified and 35 studies met inclusion criteria.
- Eligible studies used a longitudinal design with at least six months between time points, included young people aged 10–24 years, measured screen time duration/frequency, and used validated continuous measures of internalising mental health symptoms.
- Because of wide variation in models and outcomes, the authors conducted a narrative synthesis rather than a meta-analysis; effect sizes were estimated for a subset of studies examining total screen time and depression.
Limitations
- Stated in the paper: all included studies used self-report or parent-report measures of screen time and mental health; no studies used clinician-rated mental health measures, and only one used ecological momentary assessment for screen time. There was variation in definitions and measures of screen time, few longitudinal studies on smartphone and social media use, and most studies examined depression rather than anxiety, self-esteem, or other internalising symptoms.
- Stated in the paper: procedural quality varied widely; most studies did not report whether dropouts differed from remaining participants or provide baseline participation rates, and only one study met all nine quality criteria. Quantitative synthesis was judged impractical and potentially misleading due to diverse models and outcomes.
- Evident from the text: included studies varied substantially in statistical rigour, with some omitting relevant paths or overadjusting for covariates, which may bias estimates; the review is narrative and cannot resolve inconsistent sex or device-specific findings.
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63 Not checked yet · 35 No basis given · 19 Own result · 15 Own method · 11 Own interpretation
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This association appeared to be moderated by sex, physical activity levels, and BMI.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.8. Summary
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
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In the paper
“However, it is of note that studies were highly variable with regard to the quality of analyses performed and reported.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.7. Magnitude of effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The association between screen time and depressive symptoms varied between different devices and uses.”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.8. Summary · plain
“The association between screen time and depression also varied between”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § 3.3.8. Summary · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The association between screen time and subsequent depressive symptoms was found to be small to very small in size.”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.7. Magnitude of effects · plain
“the size of the effects for this subset of articles ranges from small to very small”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.8. Summary · hedged
“There was some evidence to suggest a very small to small positive association between total screen time and subsequent depressive symptoms.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § 3.3.7. Magnitude of effects · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of these, four studies found that total screen time at baseline positively correlated with subsequent depressive symptoms”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3. Depression 3.3.1. Total screen time
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In contrast to depressive symptoms, evidence to support longitudinal associations between screen time and other internalising mental health symptoms, including anxiety, self-esteem, and general internalising problems, was lacking.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The complexity and range of the longitudinal models, the number of moderating variables, and the often incomplete reporting of the results made it difficult to extract comparable data when estimating the size of the effects.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.7. Magnitude of effects
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was limited evidence of any reverse association between depressive symptoms and subsequent screen time.”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.8. Summary · hedged
“Relatively fewer studies found evidence for the reverse association of depressive symptoms on subsequent screen time.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § 3.3.8. Summary · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of these, three studies found that the depressive symptoms at baseline were positively associated with total screen time at follow-up”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3. Depression 3.3.1. Total screen time
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“This study found that self-esteem at baseline was negatively associated with subsequent frequency of videogame use.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.5.5. Videogames
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Witt et al., 2011 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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- Probably not a substantial claim. 25
- It may state two separate claims as one. 49
- The quote only partly states this claim. 6
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The most common internalising mental health symptoms were depression (n = 23) and anxiety (n = 10) followed by self-esteem (n = 4).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.2. Study characteristics
plainn = 23- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Based on these analyses, the size of the effects for this subset of articles ranges from small to very small, although with stronger associations for the relationship between screen time to depression, rather than the reverse”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.7. Magnitude of effects
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of these, six studies found no association”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.2. Television/video · plain
“while three studies reported that television/video viewing at baseline was positively associated with depressive symptoms at follow-up”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.2. Television/video
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 3.3.2. Television/video · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of these, four studies reported no association between videogame use at baseline and subsequent depressive symptoms”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.6. Videogames · plain
“A fifth study reported that videogame use at baseline was positively associated with depressive symptoms at follow-up”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.6. Videogames · plain
“while a sixth study reported that time spent playing games on the internet at baseline was negatively associated with depressive symptoms at follow-up”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.6. Videogames
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 3.3.6. Videogames · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Of these, three studies found no association between computer/internet use at baseline and subsequent depressive symptoms”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.3. Computer/internet · plain
“Two studies found a positive association between computer/internet use at baseline and depressive symptoms at followup”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.3. Computer/internet · plain
“A seventh study found no association between computer use on weekdays and subsequent depressive symptoms, and a small, positive association between weekend computer use and subsequent depressive symptoms”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.3. Computer/internet
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § 3.3.3. Computer/internet · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Three studies reported no association between social media use and subsequent depressive symptoms”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.5. Social media · plain
“A fourth study found a small, positive association between the frequency of Instagram browsing and subsequent depressive symptoms”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.5. Social media
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § 3.3.5. Social media · plain
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes were not able to be calculated for all studies due to wide variation in models fitted, in terms of types of models, the paths incorporated, and the way in which effects were reported.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 2.5. Data extraction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two studies found a significant positive association between mobile phone use and subsequent depressive symptoms”
- Also stated in: § 3.3.4. Mobile phone · plain
“A third study found no association between daily time spent texting at baseline and subsequent depressive symptoms”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.4. Mobile phone
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one. The quote only partly states this claim.
- Also stated in: § 3.3.4. Mobile phone · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In total, 17 studies examined the impact of screen time at baseline on subsequent level or change in mental health symptoms, 6 studies examined the impact of internalising mental health symptoms at baseline on subsequent screen time, and 12 studies examined bidirectional relationships.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.2. Study characteristics
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Seven studies examined other internalising symptoms, including general internalising or emotional problems and psychological wellbeing.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.2. Study characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Many studies were conducted in the United States (14/ 35); sample sizes ranged from 126 to 12,866 participants; the majority (29/35) were generally evenly split between male and female participants.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.2. Study characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Both studies found no significant association in either direction.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.5. Social media
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Boers et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Coyne et al., 2020 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two studies found no association between total screen time and subsequent internalising symptoms (Allen & Vella, 2015;Perrino et al., 2019).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.6. Other internalising symptoms 3.6.1. Total screen time
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“There was some evidence that self-esteem is positively associated with subsequent computer/internet use, negatively associated with subsequent videogame use, and not associated with subsequent mobile phone use.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.5.6. Summary
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two studies found no association between television viewing and subsequent anxiety symptoms (Boers et al., 2020;Khouja et al., 2019).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.2. Television/video
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Boers et al., 2020
- Not checked yetcites Khouja et al., 2019 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“One study (Zink et al., 2019) found that symptoms of Social Phobia and Generalised Anxiety Disorder, but not Panic Disorder, were positively associated with subsequent total screen time (excluding television) at follow-up in unadjusted models, and in models adjusted for age, sex, race/ethnicity, SES, physical activity and BMI percentile.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.1. Total screen time
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zink et al., 2019 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One study reported no association between these variables (Khouja et al., 2019)”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.4. Mobile phone
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Khouja et al., 2019 source
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“One study reported no association between videogame use, and subsequent anxiety symptoms (Boers et al., 2020)”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.6. Videogames
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Boers et al., 2020
plain- Asserted: fails — The authors may not put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Adjusted models were smaller and non-significant for symptoms specific to Panic Disorder.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.1. Total screen time
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zink et al., 2019 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“There were no significant associations between television viewing, and subsequent Generalised Anxiety Disorder or Social Phobia symptoms in unadjusted models, and a small, negative association between television viewing and subsequent Social Phobia symptoms in adjusted models.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.2. Television/video
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zink et al., 2019 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“while the second study reported that the association between time spent playing videogames and subsequent anxiety symptoms was positive for females, but negative for males (Ohannessian, 2018).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.6. Videogames
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Ohannessian, 2018 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The duration of follow-up across studies ranged from six months to 12 years.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.2. Study characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evidence regarding the association between anxiety and subsequent total screen time was mixed, with one study reporting no association between these variables, and a second study reporting a positive association between these variables.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.4.7. Summary
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the evidence was largely inconsistent as to the direction, and medium type, but nevertheless was apparent across the body of work.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For instance, while there was some evidence of positive associations between both computer/internet and mobile phone use and subsequent depression, there was little evidence of positive associations between television or videogame use, and subsequent depression or other internalising problems.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the relationship between screen time and depressive symptoms varied between different types of screen devices and uses, with stronger relationships seen for newer forms of technology, such as mobile phones and computer/internet, compared to older technologies, such as television and videogames.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The authors found no association between television viewing at baseline and both internalising symptoms and psychological wellbeing at follow-up.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.6.2. Television/video
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Poulain et al., 2019 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“This study found no association between mobile phone use at baseline and internalising symptoms at follow-up, and a negative association between mobile phone use at baseline and psychological well-being at follow-up.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.6.4. Mobile phone use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Poulain et al., 2019 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the relationship between screen time and subsequent depression, although only small to very small in size, was stronger than the reverse relationship between depression and subsequent screen time;”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the current review, we found that the nature and comprehensiveness of the analyses performed and reported varied widely between studies.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Social media appeared to be positively associated with subsequent internalising problems and psychological distress; however, the relationship between social media and psychological distress may be more pronounced among females compared to males.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.6.6. Summary
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The authors reported a positive association between computer/internet use at baseline and internalising symptoms at follow-up, and a negative association between computer/internet use at baseline and psychological well-being at follow-up.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.6.3. Computer/internet
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Poulain et al., 2019 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fourth, the majority of studies examined the longitudinal relationship between screen time and depressive symptoms; there were relatively few studies examining the relationship between screen time and anxiety, self-esteem, and other internalising symptoms.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For instance, some studies only included passive or sedentary screen use in their definition of screen time (e.g., Houghton et al., 2018), while others included both active and passive screen use.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Houghton et al., 2018 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All retained full-text articles were assessed by ST and AWS for inclusion (κ = 0.82).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 2.4. Study selection
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a consequence of the diversity of types of outcomes and models, we judged that quantitative synthesis of studies was impractical and potentially misleading.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, adjustment by variables that play other causal roles, either as mediators, moderators or outcomes can have uncertain effects, and may obscure effects or result in overestimation.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“An increase in the prevalence of mental health problems and suicide among young people has also been reported in other countries (Padmanathan, Bould, Winstone, Moran, & Gunnell, 2020;Pitchforth et al., 2018;Thorisdottir, Asgeirsdottir, Sigurvinsdottir, Allegrante, & Sigfusdottir, 2017;Wiens et al., 2020).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Positive associations between screen time and mental health problems, including depressive symptoms and suicidality, having been reported (Twenge et al., 2018).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Twenge et al., 2018 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Agreement was high between the two authors (κ = 0.91).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 2.4. Study selection
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Assessment was conducted independently by ST and AWS and discrepancies were resolved through discussion.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 2.6. Quality assessment
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The protocol was registered with PROSPERO (registration number CRD42020180145).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 2.1. Protocol and registration
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For instance, a recent study conducted in the United States found that screen time accounted for only 0.4% of variation in mental wellbeing in an adolescent population (Orben & Przybylski, 2019).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Orben & Przybylski, 2019 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Comprehensive inclusion of confoundersvariables that drive both mental health and screen timecan lead to less biased estimates of the causal effect of screen time on mental health and vice versa.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Omission of paths reflecting previous mental health and screen time status or modelling change in status using growth curves or changes scores (paths c and d respectively) can inflate estimates while their inclusion can improve precision and reduce bias.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A systematic review of 13 published reviews concluded that there is moderately strong evidence for a positive association between screen time and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents, but not behavior problems, anxiety, hyperactivity and inattention, self-esteem, well-being, and psychosocial health (Stiglic & Viner, 2019).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Stiglic & Viner, 2019 source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Between 2010 and 2015, a 33% increase in the number of adolescents exhibiting high levels of depressive symptoms, and a 31% increase in adolescent suicide deaths was observed in the United States (Twenge, Cooper, Joiner, Duffy, & Binau, 2019).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Twenge et al., 2019
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“We followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff, Altman, & Group, 2009) for reporting this systematic review.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 2.1. Protocol and registration
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Moher et al., 2009 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Longitudinal studies provide more robust data because they can examine correlations over time and provide insight into the direction of observed effects.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Conversely, omission of confounding variables can result in overestimation of effects.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 1. Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All, or almost all, studies provided exact information on follow-up duration (100%), non-selective reporting of results (97.1%), a clear description of their statistical approach (94.3%), and point estimates and measures of variability (88.6%).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.7. Quality of studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Variation in the relationship between screen time and depression according to screen device type or use indicate that screen time in itself is unlikely to causally increase mental health problems; rather, it is likely that the relationship between screen time and mental health problems is dependent on screen content and activity.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The results of the current review largely align with past systematic reviews, which have concluded that there is a positive association between screen time and depressive symptoms (Hoare et al., 2016;Liu et al., 2016;Stiglic & Viner, 2019;Wang et al., 2019), and a weak association between screen time and both anxiety and self-esteem (Stiglic & Viner, 2019).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the use of social media for the purpose of social comparison and feedback seeking (Nesi & Prinstein, 2015), and passive, rather than active use of social media (Frison & Eggermont, 2016;Thorisdottir, Sigurvinsdottir, Asgeirsdottir, Allegrante, & Sigfusdottir, 2019) have been shown to be associated with higher subsequent depressive symptoms among adolescents.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Past systematic reviews have concluded that social media is positively associated with depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents (Keles et al., 2020;McCrae et al., 2017).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The current review is the first to provide a comprehensive overview of research examining the bidirectional, longitudinal relationship between screen time and internalising mental health symptoms in young people.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most studies used a validated measure of mental health symptoms in its original form (82.9%), provided exact sample size at each measurement (68.6%), and provided adequate description of the sampling and recruitment methods (62.9%).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.7. Quality of studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that the relationship between total screen time and subsequent depressive symptoms was stronger than the relationship between depressive symptoms and subsequent screen time, which provides partial support for the hypothesis that greater screen time is associated with increases in internalising mental health problems.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These findings are consistent with the results of a recent systematic review, which concluded that screen type is a significant moderator of the relationship between screen time and internalising mental health symptoms (Zink, Belcher, et al., 2020).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zink, Belcher, et al., 2020
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For instance, it has been shown that social media use may be associated with higher levels of loneliness among adolescents who are already low in in-person social interaction, but not those high in in-person social interaction (Twenge, Spitzberg, & Campbell, 2019).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Twenge, Spitzberg, & Campbell, 2019
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The latter risks biasing parameter estimates and, in some analyses, may have also introduced high levels of multi-collinearity.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, we are unable to rule out the existence of this association, particularly given that studies utilising appropriate, sophisticated statistical methods, such as that of Houghton et al. (2018), reported bidirectional associations between screen time and depressive symptoms.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Houghton et al. (2018) source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other studies reported non-significant associations between total screen time and depression, implying that the effect size confidence intervals include zero.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Limitations included the use of models where the omission of certain paths may have biased estimates of effect in either direction, and overadjustment through the inclusion of covariates that are not confounders.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“First, all included studies utilised self-report or parent-reported measures of both screen time and mental health outcomes; no studies meeting the inclusion criteria utilised clinician-rated measures of mental health, and only one study utilised EMA to measure screen time (Bickham et al., 2015).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bickham et al., 2015 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For instance, screens enable young people to connect with others and to access mental health information and support (Horgan & Sweeney, 2010).”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Horgan & Sweeney, 2010
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, there was variation between studies in the definition of 'screen time', and self-report measures used to assess screen time.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The funders had no role in the study design, collection, analysis or interpretation of the data, writing the manuscript, or the decision to submit the paper for publication.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > Role of funding sources
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, the procedural quality of studies included in the current review varied widely, with the majority of studies not providing information about whether participants who dropped out from the study differed from those who remained in the study, and about participation rates at baseline, making it difficult to assess whether their results were subject to bias.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The current review suggests that this discourse may not accurately reflect the available scientific literature, and that the magnitude of the effects when they can be measured range from small to very small.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 4. Discussion
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Findings support prior literature showing differences in associations between social media use and mental health across men and women (Tang et al., 2021; Twenge & Farley, 2021).”
From Time Spent on Social Media and Associations with Mental Health in Young Adults: Examining TikTok, Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, Youtube, Snapchat, and Reddit (2025) · cites this paper as Tang et al., 2021
In the citing paper
“More screen time has been associated with depressive symptoms among children and adolescents in several systematic reviews [11, 12, 43–50].”
From Screen time and mental health: a prospective analysis of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (2024) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“For instance, few existing studies feature longitudinal time frames and account for additional demographic factors, particularly race/ethnicity and sex [12, 75, 76].”
From Screen time and mental health: a prospective analysis of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (2024) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“In a systematic review of longitudinal studies examining the relationship between screen time and internalizing mental health symptoms, Tang et al. (2021) found a small but significant correlation between screen time and subsequent depressive symptoms among adolescents aged 10 to 24 years.”
From Screen time and mental health: a prospective analysis of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (2024) · cites this paper as Tang et al. (2021)
In the citing paper
“Prior studies have identified sex differences in the relationship between screen time and mental health outcomes, but this evidence remains inconsistent across studies [11, 12, 51], calling for additional longitudinal analyses to provide further insight into the moderating effect of sex.”
From Screen time and mental health: a prospective analysis of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (2024) · cites this paper as [12]
In the citing paper
“Longitudinal studies provide more robust data and enable the examination of correlations over time [12].”
From Screen time and mental health: a prospective analysis of the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study (2024) · cites this paper as [12]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated major: it would touch a result — a value a result rests on, reported and recomputed p-values on opposite sides of the significance level, two passages that conflict with no sign which is right, or a cited work retracted before this paper was published.
In the paper
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.6.3. Computer/internet
“The authors reported a positive association between computer/internet use at baseline and internalising symptoms at follow-up, and a negative association between computer/internet use at baseline and psychological well-being at follow-up.”
§ The relationship between screen time and mental health in young people: A systematic review of longitudinal studies > 3.3.8. Summary
“Since Poulain et al. (2019) found a positive association between computer/internet use and subsequent internalising symptoms, but not poor psychological wellbeing, and a positive association between mobile phone use and subsequent poor psychological wellbeing, this study was included in the ST-OIS(computer/internet) and ST-OIS(mobile phone) study counts as 0.5 studies.”
Citations
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Stein, D. J., Shoptaw, S. J., Vigo, D. V., Lund, C., Cuijpers, P., Bantjes, J., Sartorius, N., & Maj, M. (2022) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20998 · Cited by 331
The associations between screen time and mental health in adolescents: a systematic review
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“It was also observed in the literature that, over time, the relationship between screen time and depressive symptoms varied between different screen uses, with stronger relationships observed with cell phones and computer/internet, new forms of technology [11].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialTrott, M., Driscoll, R., Iraldo, E., & Pardhan, S. (2022) · eClinicalMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101452 · Cited by 266
“131 In adults, most studies reported significant (direct whilst indirect were not significant) associations between several types of screen time (including overall screen time) and loneliness, however in one study this was only found in people without concurrent depression.”
Keyes, K. M., & Platt, J. M. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.13864 · Cited by 253
Yang, Y., Shields, G. S., Zhang, Y., Wu, H., Chen, H., & Romer, A. L. (2022) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102194 · Cited by 201
Metadata
- Authors
- Tang, S., Werner-Seidler, A., Torok, M., Mackinnon, A. J., & Christensen, H.
- Affiliations
- Black Dog Institute (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Tang, Samantha
- Venue
- Clinical Psychology Review
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-06
- Volume
- 86
- Pages
- 102021
- ISSN
- 0272-7358 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W3139313496
- Semantic Scholar
- 41461378d925fa5da2fa10bd533ff63fd987c6ce
- Cited by
- 284
- References
- 75
- Citations by year
- 2026: 74 · 2025: 71 · 2024: 57 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 8
- FWCI
- 6.61
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Clinical Psychology Review (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Social Sciences › Education › Child Development and Digital Technology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- screen time, mental health, youth, depressive symptoms, internalizing problems, anxiety, self-esteem, longitudinal associations, device utilization, screen content
- MeSH terms
- Screen Time, Adolescent, Anxiety, Cross-Sectional Studies, Humans, Longitudinal Studies, Mental Health
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