The DOI matches its Crossref record; 174 of the 176 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 135 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation
Open accessAbstract
The likelihood of initiating addictive behaviors is higher during adolescence than during any other developmental period. The differential developmental trajectories of brain regions involved in motivation and control processes may lead to adolescents' increased risk taking in general, which may be exacerbated by the neural consequences of drug use. Neuroimaging studies suggest that increased risk-taking behavior in adolescence is related to an imbalance between prefrontal cortical regions, associated with executive functions, and subcortical brain regions related to affect and motivation. Dual-process models of addictive behaviors are similarly concerned with difficulties in controlling abnormally strong motivational processes. We acknowledge concerns raised about dual-process models, but argue that they can be addressed by carefully considering levels of description: motivational processes and top-down biasing can be understood as intertwined, co-developing components of more versus less reflective states of processing. We illustrate this with a model that further emphasizes temporal dynamics. Finally, behavioral interventions for addiction are discussed. Insights in the development of control and motivation may help to better understand - and more efficiently intervene in - vulnerabilities involving control and motivation.
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In the paper
“In general agreement with this finding, parieto-occipital P2 potentials evoked by task-irrelevant threatening stimuli have been found to be reduced by attentional training in anxious individuals (Eldar and Bar-Haim, 2010).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.1. Attentional bias modification
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eldar and Bar-Haim, 2010
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“This bias was moderated by the g-allele of the OPRM1 gene: carriers of a g-allele demonstrated a particularly strong approach bias for alcohol, as well as for other appetitive stimuli (Wiers et al., 2009b).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wiers et al., 2009b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesThe paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Those participants who demonstrated the change in approach bias in the expected direction drank less during a subsequent taste test.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
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In the paper
“In the experimental but not the control conditions, patients' approach bias changed into an avoidance bias for alcohol.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesNone of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Patients in the experimental conditions showed better treatment outcomes a year later.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Remarkably, in most CBM approaches, patients both in the control group and in the experimental group think that they are in the control group (Beard, 2011).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.3. Further developments in intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Beard, 2011 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“Adolescents are known to have a tendency to take more and greater risks than individuals in other age groups in many life domains”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 2. Risky decision making in adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Arnett, 1992 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“much risk taking in adolescents occurs in the presence of peers”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 2. Risky decision making in adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Gardner and Steinberg, 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIn the paper
“The likelihood of initiating addictive behaviors is higher during adolescence than during any other developmental period.”
- Also stated in: § 4. Addiction · plain
“most addictive behaviors start in adolescence, when there is a high incidence of experimenting with psychoactive substances such as alcohol, tobacco, and legal and illegal drugs.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > Abstract
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hibell et al., 2009
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Also stated in: § 4. Addiction · plain
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Neuroimaging studies suggest that increased risk-taking behavior in adolescence is related to an imbalance between prefrontal cortical regions, associated with executive functions, and subcortical brain regions related to affect and motivation.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > Abstract
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- It may state two separate claims as one. 41
- Probably not a substantial claim. 28
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Using this task, it has been shown that both heavy drinkers (Wiers et al., 2009b) and alcoholic patients (Wiers et al., 2011) have an approach bias for alcohol.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wiers et al., 2009b
- Not checked yetcites Wiers et al., 2011 source
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In the paper
“WM training has recently also been used successfully in addiction (Houben et al., 2011b), where it was found that it helped problem drinkers with strong positive memory associations for alcohol, presumably because it helped them to overcome the bias to approach alcohol, driven by these associations.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.1. Working memory training
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Houben et al., 2011b
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The first controlled training CBM in the alcohol domain (Schoenmakers et al., 2010) found a change in patients' attentional bias for alcohol after training (vs.irrelevant control training) and an effect on post-treatment abstinence after three months.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.1. Attentional bias modification
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schoenmakers et al., 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A recent meta-analysis in the domain of anxiety found a medium effect size for this type of CBM (d = .61).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.1. Attentional bias modification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“It appears that training attention towards or away from fear stimuli (angry faces) modifies relationships between lateral prefrontal and posterior (fusiform face area) regions, as evidenced by the need to recruit lateral prefrontal cortex to overcome the trained bias (Browning et al., 2010).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.1. Attentional bias modification
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Browning et al., 2010 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Generalized effects were found both in the same task (novel pictures, close generalization) and in a different task, employing words instead of pictures: an approach avoid alcohol Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Greenwald et al., 1998 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This effect generalized to untrained pictures in the task used in the CBM and to an IAT, in which alcohol and soft-drink words were categorized with approach and avoidance words.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While 75% of the sample of 96 late adolescents met criteria for substance use problems, only one individual indicated to have a problem, Wiers et al., 2005).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.3. Further developments in intervention
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wiers et al., 2005 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Adolescence is the developmental period between childhood and adulthood, shared by humans and other mammal species (Dahl, 2004;Spear, 2000).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 1. Introduction
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The differential developmental trajectories of brain regions involved in motivation and control processes may lead to adolescents' increased risk taking in general, which may be exacerbated by the neural consequences of drug use.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“the presence of peers leads to increased risk taking in adolescents (but not adults) when making choices between driving through versus stopping at traffic intersections with a yellow light”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 2. Risky decision making in adolescence
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“adolescents achieving greater independence from their parents and, in turn, peers growing in importance”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 2. Risky decision making in adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Blakemore, 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Brown, 2004
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a recent model-based fMRI study showed increased neural signals for positive prediction errors in the striatum in adolescents (compared to children and adults), again possibly contributing to increased risk-taking behaviors in this age group”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 3. Neural developments underlying risky decision making
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cohen et al., 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In later phases of addiction, habitual responses become important, with cues automatically triggering approach-reactions, outside voluntary control”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 4. Addiction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Everitt and Robbins, 2005 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Cauffman et al. (2010) also found an inverted U-shape in a risky choice task (the Iowa Gambling Task), but the measured behavior captured approach motivation (or sensitivity to expected value) rather than risk taking itself.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 2. Risky decision making in adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cauffman et al., 2010 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“several other laboratory studies have found evidence for monotonically decreasing risk-taking levels across childhood, adolescence, and adults, which may indicate that these tasks captured more the cognitive or cold processes involved in evaluating risks”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 2. Risky decision making in adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Crone et al., 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Weller et al., 2010
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Steinberg et al. (2008) found an inverted U-shape pattern with a self-report measure, but their behavioral measure (a task similar to the one used in Gardner and Steinberg, 2005) showed a developmental pattern resembling a non-inverted U-shape with adolescents apparently taking less risks than children and adults.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 2. Risky decision making in adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Steinberg et al., 2008
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“while most adolescents experiment with at least some addictive substances, only few of them become addicted.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 4. Addiction
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difficulty with this line of evidence lies in the generalization to humans, where cognitive control over emotional processes may develop over a longer period and to a greater extent and where participants cannot be randomly assigned to conditions.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 4. Addiction
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“there is mounting evidence that adolescent substance use may exaggerate the normal inverted U curve of risky behavior in adolescence, and may in some cases (related to heavy substance use and/or premorbid levels of impulsivity) postpone or even prevent the decrease in risky behaviors normally starting in early adulthood.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 4. Addiction
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In the paper
“findings showing that higher working memory capacity (Grenard et al., 2008;Thush et al., 2008) and interference control capacity (Houben and Wiers, 2009;Wiers et al., 2009a) weaken the impact of alcohol-related automatic processes.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Grenard et al., 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Houben and Wiers, 2009
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A slowly activated response may eventually be found to provide a better ultimate outcome (i.e., match to cue-evoked goals) than a more immediately available response with a strongly associated payoff.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reflective processing (or, here synonymously, controlled processing) exists here as a pattern of interactions between elements at lower levels of description, rather than as any single element of the model separable from reinforced associations or affective-motivational processing, or identifiable with neural systems involved with top-down biasing.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
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In the paper
“The literature on adolescent risk-taking and addiction converges on the idea of dual processes, i.e., the existence of two qualitatively different types of process that underlie and may compete for control of behavior”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
What the sources say
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In the paper
“the sets of binary characteristics that define impulsive/automatic versus reflective/controlled processing do not perfectly covary; e.g., a process may be efficient (a property of automatic processes) but still depend on intentions (a property of controlled processes)”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bargh, 1994
- Not checked yetcites Evans, 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Moors and De Houwer, 2006
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The time allowed for the search for responses and outcomes is determined by the set of processes that defer response execution”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the essential role of motivation in dual-process theories, that is, why controlled processing does what and when, is often unexplained.This risks implicitly introducing a motivational homunculus”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“models or metaphors in which dual processes are defined in terms of dual systems (rather than sets of essential properties) have been criticized as lacking strong evidence”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Keren and Schul, 2009
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“there has been increasing interest in the integration of motivation and reinforcement on the one hand and controlled processing on the other”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“White et al., 2011) found that impulsive behaviors prospectively predicted binge drinking and also that binge drinking predicted increases in impulsive behaviors.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 4. Addiction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites White et al., 2011 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Evidently, some form of prior learning must underlie the evaluation and selection of top-down biasing in reflective processing”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“conditioning processes and learned associations exist at a different level of description than either reflective or automatic processing; that is, such processes do not need to be identified as either reflective or automatic, but could play a role in either.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
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A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The model suggests that especially combining such changes could result in significant changes in the system's behavior.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Outcomes provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Stimuli activate associated responses, including top-down biasing, which in turn activate expected outcomes via stimulus-response-outcome associations.
- The authors state this as an assumption: A given outcome is not uniquely coupled to a specific response; the association is transient and flexible.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The time allowed for searching for responses and outcomes is determined by processes that defer response execution.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Reflective processing exists as a pattern of interactions between lower-level elements, not as a single separable element.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Further, electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) may form a potentially important method for testing hypotheses concerning the dynamics of reflective processing.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, if care is taken to disentangle theoretical constructs that may exist at different levels of description then dual-processing may still be considered a valid theoretical foundation for work on addiction and adolescence.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Outcomes provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Stimuli activate associated responses, including top-down biasing, which in turn activate expected outcomes via stimulus-response-outcome associations.
- The authors state this as an assumption: A given outcome is not uniquely coupled to a specific response; the association is transient and flexible.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The time allowed for searching for responses and outcomes is determined by processes that defer response execution.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Reflective processing exists as a pattern of interactions between lower-level elements, not as a single separable element.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“From the R 3 perspective this could be explained in terms of increased ability to find an escape route from a craving cycle, as anodal prefrontal stimulation would be expected to facilitate the activation of necessary cognitive representations and top-down biasing.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.1. Working memory training
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recently, another cognitive bias in addiction has been addressed with re-training: an approach-bias for substance-related stimuli.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most work has been done on attentional bias modification, with promising clinical effects in anxiety and alcoholism.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.1. Attentional bias modification
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This suggests that the top-down biasing aspect of working memory, or executive control functions, as well as control of access to WM are trainable.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.1. Working memory training
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“After promising preclinical studies (MacLeod et al., 2002), first successful clinical applications have been reported in targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) and in clinically anxious patient groups (Amir et al., 2009;Schmidt et al., 2009), and targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) with maintenance of clinical improvement reported four months after the training (Schmidt et al., 2009).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.1. Attentional bias modification
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Further, the very fine-grained temporal coding of neural activity (Roelfsema et al., 1997;Singer et al., 1996;Tallon-Baudry et al., 1999) could be of fundamental importance to brain function.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“as oscillations in neural activity appear to be involved in working memory capacity (Benchenane et al., 2011;Kaminski et al., 2011;Moran et al., 2010), task set and movement preparation (Gladwin et al., 2006(Gladwin et al., , 2008;;Gladwin and De Jong, 2005) and the separation of subsets of information currently in working memory (Lisman, 2005;Sauseng et al., 2010).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
What the sources say
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While the immediate effect of tDCS are temporary, its effects on concurrent training could be persistent, either via plasticity or by aiding the subject in performing the training task at a higher level of performance.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.1. Working memory training
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“From the above perspective, interventions can be seen as beneficially biased learning environments, in which reinforcement can be provided that will either increase the chance of successful controlled processing, or reduce the need for it.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6. Interventions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, note that if controlled processing is indeed a dynamic set of interacting factors, then even small effects may have significant results; e.g., if participants learn to delay response selection even slightly, this may allow a qualitatively different set of responses to be selected and reinforced (Siegel, 1978).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6. Interventions
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Siegel, 1978 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Controlled processing is a dynamic set of interacting factors.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Alternatively, the criterion for settling on a response is influenced by emotional or motivational salience in a particular task context: perhaps adolescents have yet to learn that stressful, emotional situations that may naturally evoke a tendency for fast responses may sometimes benefit from a more reflective state.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Due to their high temporal resolution and their specific relationships to neural activity such methods can complement other neuroimaging modalities, allowing tests of the sub-second timing of events involved in reflective processing.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition to behavioral WM training, there is also emerging evidence that low voltage electrical stimulation at the scalp (transcranial Direct Current Stimulation, or tDCS) can facilitate dorsolateral prefrontal activity, leading to enhanced working memory (Fregni et al., 2005) and reductions in craving for alcohol (Boggio et al., 2008), food (Fregni et al., 2008b) and cigarettes (Boggio et al.,”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.1. Working memory training
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Similarly, the relationships between stress and addictive behavior and drug-related biases may reflect a narrowing of the time window relative to the reprocess-ing time required to select a slowly activated response, or one in which the superior value of the expected outcome is slower to be retrieved.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Alternatively, the criterion for settling on a response is influenced by emotional or motivational salience in a particular task context: perhaps adolescents have yet to learn that stressful, emotional situations that may naturally evoke a tendency for fast responses may sometimes benefit from a more reflective state.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The time allowed for searching for better outcomes, and the internal criteria for settling on a currently preferred (cognitive) action may play similar roles.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Outcomes provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Stimuli activate associated responses, including top-down biasing, which in turn activate expected outcomes via stimulus-response-outcome associations.
- The authors state this as an assumption: A given outcome is not uniquely coupled to a specific response; the association is transient and flexible.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The time allowed for searching for responses and outcomes is determined by processes that defer response execution.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Reflective processing exists as a pattern of interactions between lower-level elements, not as a single separable element.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This bias has been documented for a variety of substances with a variety of instruments: for cigarette-cues in smokers (Mogg et al., 2003), for marijuana-cues in marijuana users (Field et al., 2006), and for alcohol in heavy drinkers (Field et al., 2008;Ostafin and Palfai, 2006;Palfai and Ostafin, 2003).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.2. Approach bias modification
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To avoid subsequent behavioral consequences, an alternative response would need to be effectively available, i.e., existing as a neural representation, associated with the stimulus, associated with alternative positive outcomes and selectable within the reprocessing time associated with the context.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 5. Dual-process models of addiction
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In addition to these re-training paradigms, other paradigms have been developed which demonstrated promising results, such as evaluative conditioning (Houben et al., 2010), neurofeedback training (Sokhadze et al., 2008) and inhibition training in the context of problemrelated stimuli (Houben et al., 2011a), but these procedures have as yet only been tested in student samples.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.3. Further developments in intervention
What the sources say
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“One important issue, which is especially important in the context of adolescent addiction problems, is motivation to participate in a training (or more generally in any intervention).”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.3. Further developments in intervention
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In conclusion, the integration of motivation and control appears critical not only to the development of individuals, but also to the further development of theory in cognitive neuroscience.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 7. Conclusion
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The literature on adolescence dovetails with that on addiction, both in terms of the theoretical bases -imbalances are proposed that can be broadly described in terms of dual processes -but also in terms of likely substantial interactions: the vulnerabilities of adolescents map onto what makes addictive substances harmful.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 7. Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Developments in dualprocess models may provide stronger scientific grounding for cognitive bias modification as well as novel intervention targets, such as the conditioned delaying of response selection in risky situations.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 7. Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, should they recognize that they have a problem (or at least that reducing substance use might not be a bad idea), they have to be convinced that it makes sense to do the training.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 6.2.3. Further developments in intervention
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, the (mal-) adaptive learning processes leading to states of reflective and impulsive processing may be essential to understanding motivated behavior.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 7. Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✗ Checkable: fails✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In practical terms, dualprocess models of addiction not only provide hypotheses why adolescents are at increased risk of substance abuse, but have also suggested interventions that have already been successfully applied in adults.”
§ Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation > 7. Conclusion
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Outcomes provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.
“Outcomes are assumed to provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.”
“Outcomes are assumed to provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
A given outcome is not uniquely coupled to a specific response, so the association is more transient and flexible than stimulus-response-outcome connections.
“since a given outcome is not assumed to be uniquely coupled to a specific response, the association is considered to be more transient and flexible than the stimulus-response-outcome connections”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Stimuli activate associated responses, including top-down biasing, which in turn activate expected outcomes via stimulus-response-outcome associations.
“Subfigure (A) Stimuli are proposed to activate associated responses, including generalized cognitive responses such as top-down biasing, which in turn activate expected outcomes via stimulus-response-outcome associations.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
A given outcome is not uniquely coupled to a specific response; the association is transient and flexible.
“However, since a given outcome is not assumed to be uniquely coupled to a specific response, the association is considered to be more transient and flexible than the stimulus-response-outcome connections, as represented by the different line style (curved and shaded).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The time allowed for searching for responses and outcomes is determined by processes that defer response execution.
“The time allowed for the search for responses and outcomes is determined by the set of processes that defer response execution, represented here by the stop sign and its inhibitory effect on response execution (circle-headed arrows).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Reflective processing exists as a pattern of interactions between lower-level elements, not as a single separable element.
“Note that reflective processing (or, here synonymously, controlled processing) exists here as a pattern of interactions between elements at lower levels of description, rather than as any single element of the model separable from reinforced associations or affective-motivational processing, or identifiable with neural systems involved with top-down biasing.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Controlled processing is a dynamic set of interacting factors.
“However, note that if controlled processing is indeed a dynamic set of interacting factors, then even small effects may have significant results; e.g., if participants learn to delay response selection even slightly, this may allow a qualitatively different set of responses to be selected and reinforced (Siegel, 1978).”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Our findings therefore support models that state that multiple deficits, both executive and motivational, give rise to ADHD (e.g., the dual pathway model, Sonuga-Barke 2002), and models that emphasize the intertwined nature of executive control and motivation to control (Castellanos et al. 2006; Gladwin et al. 2011; Sonuga-Barke et al. 2008).”
From Can Motivation Normalize Working Memory and Task Persistence in Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder? The Effects of Money and Computer-Gaming (2012) · cites this paper as Gladwin et al. 2011
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“The brain mechanisms of interest here show a distinctive pattern of development: subcortical regions involved in incentive motivation develop faster than the prefrontal regions that exert inhibition in the interests of long-term consequences (Gladwin et al., 2011;Wahlstrom et al., 2010).”
From A motivation model of sex addiction – Relevance to the controversy over the concept (2022) · cites this paper as Gladwin et al., 2011
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Understanding adolescence as a period of social–affective engagement and goal flexibility
Crone, E. A., & Dahl, R. E. (2012) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn3313 · Cited by 2,507
Self-citationDecision-making in the adolescent brain
Blakemore, S.-J., & Robbins, T. W. (2012) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nn.3177 · Cited by 711
Wiers, R. W., Gladwin, T. E., Hofmann, W., Salemink, E., & Ridderinkhof, K. R. (2013) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702612466547 · Cited by 486
Self-citationMedia use and brain development during adolescence
Crone, E. A., & Konijn, E. A. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-03126-x · Cited by 464
Self-citationA meta-analysis on age differences in risky decision making: Adolescents versus children and adults.
Defoe, I. N., Dubas, J. S., Figner, B., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0038088 · Cited by 491
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Gladwin, T. E., Figner, B., Crone, E. A., & Wiers, R. W.
- Affiliations
- University of Amsterdam (NL)
- Columbia University (US)
- Leiden University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Gladwin, Thomas E.
- Venue
- Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-10
- Volume
- 1
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 364-376
- ISSN
- 1878-9293 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6987561
- OpenAlex
- W2138821128
- Cited by
- 296
- References
- 176
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 17 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 15 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 20 · 2016: 24 · 2015: 26 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 24 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 1.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UvA-DARE (University of Amsterdam) (publishedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion)
- Radboud Repository (Radboud University) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Netherlands National Science Foundation (N.W.O.)
- FMG-UvA Research Priority Grant on Affect-Regulation
- US National Science Foundation (SES-0922743)
- NWO VIDI
- ERC
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Keywords
- adolescent addiction, motivation, cognitive control, executive function, prefrontal cortex, subcortical structures, risk-taking, dual-process models, levels of description, temporal dynamics, developmental trajectories
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Brain, Decision Making, Humans, Motivation, Risk-Taking, Behavior, Addictive
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-05, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-05 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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