Prevalence and Axis I comorbidity of full and partial posttraumatic stress disorder in the United States: results from Wave 2 of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions
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The present study used data from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (n = 34,653) to examine lifetime Axis I psychiatric comorbidity of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults. Lifetime prevalences ± standard errors of PTSD and partial PTSD were 6.4% ± 0.18 and 6.6% ± 0.18, respectively. Rates of PTSD and partial PTSD were higher among women (8.6% ± 0.26 and 8.6% ± 0.26) than men (4.1% ± 0.19 and 4.5% ± 0.21). Respondents with both PTSD and partial PTSD most commonly reported unexpected death of someone close, serious illness or injury to someone close, and sexual assault as their worst stressful experiences. PTSD and partial PTSD were associated with elevated lifetime rates of mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders, and suicide attempts. Respondents with partial PTSD generally had intermediate odds of comorbid Axis I disorders and psychosocial impairment relative to trauma controls and full PTSD.
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Clinic-wide screening yielded 52 (50.4% positive rate) potentially eligible women.
“Clinic-wide screening yielded 52 (50.4% positive rate) potentially eligible women, which is consistent with previous literature regarding rate of PTSD/SUD comorbidity [27].”
From Written exposure therapy for treatment of perinatal PTSD among women with comorbid PTSD and SUD: A pilot study examining feasibility, acceptability, and preliminary effectiveness (2023) · cites this paper as [27]
The citation is offered for the comparison with prior PTSD/SUD comorbidity literature, not for the citing authors’ own clinic screening count. Section 3.3 (Comorbidity; page not available) reports elevated odds of alcohol and drug abuse/dependence among respondents with PTSD, supporting the general comorbidity point. It does not establish that a 50.4% positive screening rate among clinic women is comparable to its findings. (LLM, conf=0.84)
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BackgroundSelf-citationPartial PTSD <i>versus</i> full PTSD: an empirical examination of associated impairment
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Post-traumatic stress disorder: The role of trauma, pre-existing psychiatric disorders, and gender
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Partial posttraumatic stress disorder revisited
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““Partial PTSD” describes clinically significant PTSD symptoms in trauma-exposed individuals who do not meet full criteria for PTSD (Mylle & Maes, 2004; Weiss, Marmar, Schlenger, Fairbank, Jordan, Hough, & Kulka, 1992).”
BackgroundFull and partial PTSD among earthquake survivors in rural Taiwan
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Alcohol Dependence and Abuse Diagnoses: Concurrent Validity in a Nationally Representative Sample
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“PTSD was also associated with greater past-month psychosocial dysfunction, which replicates prior research (Stein et al., 1997; Schnurr et al., 2000; Breslau et al., 2004a; Jeon et al., 2007; Pietrzak et al., 2009).”
ResultInfluentialSchützwohl, M., & Maercker, A. R. A. (1999) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1024706702133 · Cited by 143 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…Connor, Lee, & Davidson, 2004; Marshall, Olfson, Hellman, Blanco, Guardino, & Struening, 2001; Pietrzak, Goldstein, Southwick, & Grant, in press; Schutzwohl & Maercker, 1999; Stein, Walker, Hazen, & Forde, 1997; Zlotnick, Franklin, & Zimmerman, 2002) have found intermediate levels of…”
The Validity of DSM‐IV Alcohol Dependence: What Do We Know and What Do We Need to Know?
Hasin, D. S., Schuckit, M. A., Martin, C. S., Grant, B. F., Bucholz, K. K., & Helzer, J. E. (2003) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1097/01.alc.0000060878.61384.ed · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Self-citationLloyd, D. A., & Turner, R. J. (2003) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/0002-9432.73.4.381 · Cited by 134 · cited 4× · see citing works
“…while the association between PTSD and drug use disorders may be primarily causally driven by PTSD (Breslau et al., 2003; Chilcoat & Breslau, 1998; Lloyd & Turner, 2003), a shared genetic association has also been observed (McLeod, Koenen, Meyer, Lyons, Eisen, True, & Goldberg, 2001; Xian,…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialAdams, R. E., Boscarino, J. A., & Galea, S. (2006) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990500479522 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Berger, W., Figueira, I., Maurat, A. M., Bucassio, É. P., Vieira, I., Jardim, S. R., Coutinho, E. S. F., Mari, J. J., & Mendlowicz, M. V. (2007) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20242 · Cited by 125 · cited 2× · see citing works
“, 2000; Watson & Daniels, 2008), ambulance workers (Berger, Figueira, Maurat, Bucassio, Vieira, Jardim, Coutinho, Mari, & Mendlowicz, 2007), and survivors of toxic chemical exposures, disasters, and other traumas (Adams, Boscarino, & Galea, 2006; Berger et al., 2007; Breslau et al., 2004a; Jeon et al., 2007; Lai, Chan…”
Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, M. B., Malley, J. C., Johnson, D. C., & Southwick, S. M. (2009) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20574 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Self-citationGil, S., & Caspi, Y. (2006) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/01.psy.0000242124.21796.f8 · Cited by 111 · cited 1× · see citing works
“It is also consistent with evidence that indirect exposure to trauma is associated with the development of PTSD (Gil & Caspi, 2006; Kessler et al., 1995; Vila, Porche, & Mouren-Simeoni, 1999; Zimering, Gulliver, Knight, Munroe, & Keane, 2006), and that PTSD symptom structure following indirect…”
BackgroundMcLeod, D. S., Koenen, K. C., Meyer, J. M., Lyons, M. J., Eisen, S. A., True, W., & Goldberg, J. H. (2001) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/a:1011157800050 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Chung, H., & Breslau, N. (2008) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291707002589 · Cited by 101 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…of PTSD in women is also consistent with these surveys, though not entirely understood, as it is not fully explained by higher occurrences of sexual assault and rape, preexisting depression or anxiety disorders, or sex-related bias in symptom reporting (Chung & Breslau, 2008; Tolin & Foa, 2006).”
ResultZimering, R. T., Gulliver, S. B., Knight, J., Munroe, J., & Keane, T. M. (2006) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20143 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Validity of the bi‐axial dependence concept: a test in the US general population
Hasin, D. S., MUTHUEN, B., Wisnicki, K. S., & Grant, B. F. (1994) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1994.tb03333.x · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Self-citationA descriptive analysis of PTSD chronicity in Vietnam veterans
Schnurr, P. P., Lunney, C. A., Sengupta, A., & Waelde, L. C. (2003) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1023/b:jots.0000004077.22408.cf · Cited by 86 · cited 2× · see citing works
“…& Forde, 1997; Zlotnick, Franklin, & Zimmerman, 2002) have found intermediate levels of psychiatric comorbidity and functional impairment compared to trauma-exposed individuals without PTSD and those with full PTSD. Partial PTSD can persist for years (Jeon et al., 2007; Schnurr et al., 2003).”
BackgroundVila, G., Porche, L. M., & Mouren‐Siméoni, M. (1999) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-199911000-00005 · Cited by 82 · cited 2× · see citing works
“0 years) replicates previous evidence from pediatric samples that direct exposure to a traumatic event is associated with a more severe and protracted clinical course (Kim, Kim, Kim, Shin, Cho, Choi, Ahn, Lee, Ryu, & Yun, 2009; Vila et al., 1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialJeon, H. J., Suh, T., Lee, H. J., Hahm, B., Lee, J., Cho, S., Lee, Y. R., Chang, S. M., & Cho, M. J. (2006) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.20270 · Cited by 71 · cited 12× · see citing works
“Prior research has also similarly observed that specific types of traumas, such as unexpected death or serious illness or injury to someone close, as well as sexual assault are associated with increased risk of PTSD (Breslau et al., 1998; Hapke, Schumann, Rumpf, John,& Meyer, 2006; Jeon et al., 2007; Kessler et al., 1…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F. (2010) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.09.013 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Self-citationFriedman, M. J., & Yehuda, R. (1995) · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Indirect exposure to the September 11 terrorist attacks: Does symptom structure resemble PTSD?
Suvak, M. K., Maguen, S., Litz, B. T., Silver, R. C., & Holman, E. A. (2008) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.20289 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Kim, B., Kim, J.-W., Kim, H., Shin, M., Cho, S.-C., Choi, N. H., Ahn, H.-N., Lee, S.-Y., Ryu, J., & Yun, M.-J. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.08m04896 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
The language barrier and institutional provincialism in science
Stolerman, I. P., & Stenius, K. (2007) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2007.07.010 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Full and Partial Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder among World War II Prisoners of War
Favaro, A., Tenconi, E., Colombo, G., & Santonastaso, P. (2006) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000093522 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Three-Year Follow-Up of Syndromal Antisocial Behavior in Adults
Goldstein, R. B., & Grant, B. F. (2009) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.08m04545 · Cited by 29 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…in Wave 1 (Compton, Conway, Stinson, Colliver, & Grant, 2005; Grant et al., 2004c; Grant et al., 2005c); antisocial PD was assessed at both waves (Goldstein & Grant, 2009); and schizotypal, narcissistic, and borderline PDs were assessed in Wave 2 (Grant et al., 2008; Stinson, Dawson, Goldstein,…”
BackgroundSelf-citationWatson, P. B., & Daniels, B. A. (2008) · Australasian Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/10398560701616213 · Cited by 5 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…Phelps, Hunt, Holmes, Felker, Klevens, & McFall, 2007; Kulka, 1990; Pietrzak, Goldstein, Malley, Johnson, & Southwick, 2009; Schnurr et al., 2000; Watson & Daniels, 2008), ambulance workers (Berger, Figueira, Maurat, Bucassio, Vieira, Jardim, Coutinho, Mari, & Mendlowicz, 2007), and survivors of…”
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Research works printed but not linked: 3
- American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-3rd edition, revision (DSM-III-R) 1987 Washington, DC American Psychiatric Press
- American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-4th edition (DSM-IV) 1994 Washington, DC American Psychiatric Press
- American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders-text revision (DSM-IV-TR) 2000 Washington, DC American Psychiatric Press
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Sorted by citations
Kessler, R. C., Petukhova, M., Sampson, N. A., Zaslavsky, A. M., & Wittchen, H. (2012) · International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1002/mpr.1359 · Cited by 2,947 · see citing works
Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Milanak, M. E., Miller, M. W., Keyes, K. M., & Friedman, M. J. (2013) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.21848 · Cited by 1,929 · see citing works
Katzman, M. A., Bleau, P., Blier, P., Chokka, P., Kjernisted, K., Van Ameringen, M., & the Canadian Anxiety Guidelines Initiative Group on behalf of the Anxiety Disorders Association of Canada/Association Canadienne des troubles anxieux and McGill University (2014) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/1471-244x-14-s1-s1 · Cited by 1,090 · see citing works
“PTSD is frequently comorbid with other psychiatric disorders, including other anxiety and related disorders, MDD, and SUDs, which may complicate diagnosis and management [849,859].”
BackgroundInfluentialPost-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Shalev, A. Y., Liberzon, I., & Marmar, C. R. (2017) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmra1612499 · Cited by 799 · see citing works
Experiences of domestic violence and mental disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Trevillion, K., Oram, S., Feder, G., & Howard, L. M. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051740 · Cited by 729 · see citing works
The physical health consequences of PTSD and PTSD symptoms: A meta-analytic review
Pacella, M. L., Hruska, B., & Delahanty, D. L. (2013) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2012.08.004 · Cited by 677 · see citing works
Goldstein, R. B., Smith, S. M. R., Chou, S. P., Saha, T. D., Jung, J., Zhang, H., Pickering, R. P., Ruan, W. J., Huang, B., & Grant, B. F. (2016) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-016-1208-5 · Cited by 674 · see citing works
“previous findings [3, 4, 42, 43], prevalences were higher among women and respondents aged\65 years, previously married, and with\high school education and household income \$70,000.”
InfluentialSelf-citationHasin, D. S., & Grant, B. F. (2015) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-015-1088-0 · Cited by 452 · see citing works
“criteria were met found either that this did not affect comorbidity [52, 146, 147] or that those with partial criteria had intermediate likelihood of comorbidity [148, 149], suggesting heterogeneity.”
BackgroundSelf-citationPrevalence of Mental Illnesses in U.S. State Prisons: A Systematic Review
Prins, S. J. (2014) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.201300166 · Cited by 456 · see citing works
Roberts, N. P., Roberts, P. A., Jones, N., & Bisson, J. I. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.02.007 · Cited by 429 · see citing works
McCauley, J. L., Killeen, T. K., Grös, D. F., Brady, K. T., & Back, S. E. (2012) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/cpsp.12006 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Petrie, K., Milligan-Saville, J. S., Gayed, A., Deady, M., Phelps, A. J., Dell, L., Forbes, D., Bryant, R. A., Calvo, R. A., Glozier, N., et al. (2018) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-018-1539-5 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
A systematic review of the comorbidity between PTSD and alcohol misuse
Debell, F., Fear, N. T., Head, M., Batt-Rawden, S., Greenberg, N. L., Wessely, S. C., & Goodwin, L. (2014) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-014-0855-7 · Cited by 368 · see citing works
“A small minority used data from large studies of general populations (n = 6), including the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions [33], the US National Comorbidity Survey-Replication 2007 [21], the Korean Epidemiologic Catchment Area study replication [46] or other general population screenin…”
Effectiveness of national implementation of prolonged exposure therapy in Veterans affairs care
Eftekhari, A., Ruzek, J. I., Crowley, J. J., Rosen, C. S., Greenbaum, M. A., & Karlin, B. E. (2013) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.36 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
“Clinicians were provided with the following options to explain why their patient had dropped out of treatment: (1) s/he improved and did not return; (2) s/he experienced increased distress and did not continue; (3) “other” (response option provided) or “unknown.”
BackgroundMills, K. L., Teesson, M., Back, S. E., Brady, K. T., Baker, A. L., Hopwood, S., Sannibale, C., Barrett, E. L., Merz, S., Rosenfeld, J., et al. (2012) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2012.9071 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
“Age at first trauma, median (range)f 10 (1-44) 7 (2-28) 8 (1-44)”
BackgroundBlanco, C., Xu, Y., Brady, K. T., Pérez-Fuentes, G., Okuda, M., & Wang, S. (2013) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.04.016 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in the US Veteran Population
Wisco, B. E., Marx, B. P., Wolf, E. J., Miller, M. W., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2014) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.14m09328 · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Self-citationPost-traumatic Stress Disorder by Gender and Veteran Status
Lehavot, K., Katon, J. G., Chen, J. A., Fortney, J. C., & Simpson, T. L. (2017) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2017.09.008 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Hawn, S. E., Cusack, S. E., & Amstadter, A. B. (2020) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22521 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Forkus, S. R., Raudales, A. M., Rafiuddin, H. S., Weiss, N. H., Messman, B. A., & Contractor, A. A. (2023) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1037/cps0000111 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Rodent models of post-traumatic stress disorder: behavioral assessment
Verbitsky, A., Dopfel, D., & Zhang, N. (2020) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-020-0806-x · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Neuroimmune signaling in alcohol use disorder
Erickson, E. K., Grantham, E. K., Warden, A. S., & Harris, R. A. (2018) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2018.12.007 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Chandan, J. S., Thomas, T. R., Bradbury‐Jones, C., Russell, R., Bandyopadhyay, S., Nirantharakumar, K., & Taylor, J. S. (2019) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.2019.124 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Mayo, L. M., Asratian, A., Lindé, J., Morena, M., Haataja, R., Hammar, V., Augier, G., Hill, M. N., & Heilig, M. A. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.07.034 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Stacks, A. M., Muzik, M., Wong, K., Beeghly, M., Huth-Bocks, A., Irwin, J. L., & Rosenblum, K. L. (2014) · Attachment & Human Development · doi:10.1080/14616734.2014.935452 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Fuehrlein, B., Mota, N. P., Arias, A. J., Trevisan, L. A., Kachadourian, L. K., Krystal, J. H., Southwick, S. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2016) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.13423 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“8% prevalence of PTSD in the general adult population [22,23].”
BackgroundSelf-citationSmith, S. M. R., Goldstein, R. B., & Grant, B. F. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.06.022 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
“Alternatively, high rates of mood, anxiety and personality disorders among veterans with PTSD may reflect overlapping diagnostic criteria between these disorders (Pietrzak et al., 2011b).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationMorland, L. A., Mackintosh, M.-A., Rosen, C. S., Willis, E., Resick, P., Chard, K., & Frueh, B. C. (2015) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22397 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
“2% in the United States population.[1] PTSD prevalence is estimated at 10 –20% of veterans of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan.”
BackgroundPosttraumatic Stress Disorder in Older Adults: A Conceptual Review
Pless Kaiser, A., Cook, J. M., Glick, D. M., & Moye, J. (2019) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2018.1539801 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Pietrzak, R., Goldstein, R., Southwick, S., & Grant, B. (2011) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0b013e3182303775 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“Details of respondents’ trauma histories are available elsewhere (53).”
BackgroundSelf-citationFeduccia, A. A., Jerome, L., Yazar-Klosinski, B., Emerson, A., Mithoefer, M. C., & Doblin, R. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00650 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
“Both SSRI drug labels state that alcohol is not recommended, but given that a significant number of people with PTSD also have comorbid alcohol use disorders, refraining from alcohol may be particularly problematic for this population and lead to negative effects (64, 65).”
BackgroundKozel, F. A., Motes, M. A., Didehbani, N., DeLaRosa, B., Bass, C., Schraufnagel, C. D., Jones, P., Morgan, C. R., Spence, J. S., Kraut, M. A., et al. (2017) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2017.12.046 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“…Co-morbidity Survey (NCS) reported a lifetime prevalence rate of 7.8% for PTSD in a national sample (Kessler et al., 2005, 1995), while the data from the Wave 2 National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions found the lifetime prevalence of PTSD to be 6.4% (Pietrzak et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Epidemiology of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder and Alcohol Use Disorder
Smith, N. (2018) · Alcohol research · doi:10.35946/arcr.v39.2.02 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
MRI findings in posttraumatic stress disorder
Kunimatsu, A., Yasaka, K., Akai, H., Kunimatsu, N., & Abe, O. (2019) · Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging · doi:10.1002/jmri.26929 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“More than half of the patients with PTSD have psychiatric comorbidities such as mood, anxiety, or substance-use disorders.(7) An elevated risk of suicide attempts has also been noted in patients with PTSD.”
BackgroundEffect of Stellate Ganglion Block Treatment on Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms
Olmsted, K. R., Bartoszek, M. W., Mulvaney, S. W., McLean, B. C., Turabi, A., Young, R., Kim, E., Vandermaas-Peeler, R., Morgan, J. K., Constantinescu, O., et al. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2019.3474 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Prevalence and prognosis of stress disorders: a review of the epidemiologic literature
Gradus, J. (2017) · Clinical Epidemiology · doi:10.2147/clep.s106250 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
“24 In a recent longitudinal cohort study based on the Danish national healthcare and social registries, alcohol abuse and dependence incidence increased steadily among people with stress disorder diagnoses, ultimately reaching between 10% and 15% at the end of 15 years.”
InfluentialRemission from post-traumatic stress disorder in the general population
Chapman, C., Mills, K. L., Slade, T. N., McFARLANE, A. C., Bryant, R. A., Creamer, M., Silove, D. M., & Teesson, M. (2011) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291711002856 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
“However, estimates of duration and remission in this analysis were based on reports of respondents’ only or longest episodes, and Pietrzak et al. (2011) did not model time to PTSD remission over lifetime, making direct comparisons with previous estimates difficult.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCavanaugh, C. E., Petras, H., & Martins, S. S. (2015) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-015-1024-3 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
“Third, given gender differences in ACEs [19,8] and MSUDs [20-22], there is a need for gender-specific examinations of ACEs and associated problems.”
BackgroundRISK FACTORS FOR ANXIETY DISORDERS: COMMON AND SPECIFIC EFFECTS IN A NATIONAL SAMPLE
Blanco, C., Rubio, J. M., Wall, M. M., Wang, S., Jiu, C. J., & Kendler, K. S. (2014) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1002/da.22247 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Ryder, A. L., Azcarate, P. M., & Cohen, B. E. (2018) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-018-0977-9 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
The relationship between PTSD and chronic pain: Mediating role of coping strategies and depression
Morasco, B. J., Lovejoy, T. I., Lu, M., Turk, D. C., Lewis, L., & Dobscha, S. K. (2013) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2013.01.001 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“Patients with PTSD have more risk factors for pain, including higher rates of psychiatric and substance use disorders [29,40], as well as general medical conditions [41].”
BackgroundCheng, H., & Mallinckrodt, B. S. (2015) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000052 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Jenkins, L. M., Barba, A., Campbell, M. L., Lamar, M., Shankman, S. A., Leow, A., Ajilore, O., & Langenecker, S. A. (2016) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2016.09.001 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the ADs are also highly comorbid within themselves (Goisman et al., 1995; Kessler et al., 1995; Pietrzrak et al., 2011).”
BackgroundPTSD: from neurobiology to pharmacological treatments
Kelmendi, B., Adams, T., Yarnell, S. C., Southwick, S., Abdallah, C., & Krystal, J. (2016) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.3402/ejpt.v7.31858 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Self-citationHeart rate variability in response to affective scenes in posttraumatic stress disorder
Hauschildt, M., Peters, M. J. V., Moritz, S., & Jelinek, L. (2011) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.08.004 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
“In fact, based on an extensive meta-analysis, Pole (2007) concludes that exclusion of medicated individuals could reduce the generalizability of results.”
BackgroundLeBouthillier, D. M., McMillan, K. A., Thibodeau, M. A., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2015) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22010 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
Orsolini, L., Chiappini, S., Volpe, U., Berardis, D. D., Latini, R., Papanti, G. D., & Corkery, J. (2019) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina55090525 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“A significant overlap has been demonstrated between PTSD and SUD [13] in several epidemiological studies which estimate that individuals with PTSD are 2–4 times more likely to have a SUD compared to non-PTSD subjects [43,44].”
BackgroundConcurrent Treatment of Substance Use and PTSD
Flanagan, J. C., Korte, K. J., Killeen, T. K., & Back, S. E. (2016) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-016-0709-y · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Hoskins, M. D., Bridges, J., Sinnerton, R., Nakamura, A., Underwood, J. F. G., Slater, A., Lee, M. R. D., Clarke, L., Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., et al. (2021) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2020.1802920 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
“PTSD is also associated with high rates of debilitating comorbidities, with up to 50% suffering from depression (Pietrzak, Goldstein, Southwick, & Grant, 2011) and drug and alcohol abuse (Roberts, Kitchiner, Kenardy, & Bisson, 2010), and 19% will attempt suicide (Kessler et al., 1996).”
BackgroundPsychological therapies for post-traumatic stress disorder and comorbid substance use disorder
Roberts, N. P., Roberts, P. A., Jones, N., & Bisson, J. I. (2016) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd010204.pub2 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Hasin, D., & Kilcoyne, B. (2012) · Current Opinion in Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/yco.0b013e3283523dcc · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“Post-traumatic stress disorder, also first assessed at wave 2, was associated with lifetime substance use disorders [42].”
BackgroundLazarov, A., Suarez‐Jimenez, B., Levi, O., Coppersmith, D. D. L., Lubin, G., Pine, D. S., Bar‐Haim, Y., Abend, R., & Neria, Y. (2019) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291719002034 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“Research has shown the detrimental effects of sub-threshold PTSD (Stein et al., 1997; Mylle and Maes, 2004; Jakupcak et al., 2007; Pietrzak et al., 2011; Mitchell et al., 2012; Schnurr, 2014; Jung et al., 2016), suggesting it as a risk condition at the prodromal phase of PTSD (Schnurr, 2014).”
BackgroundPietrzak, R. H., Schechter, C. B., Bromet, E. J., Katz, C. L., Reissman, D. B., Ozbay, F., Sharma, V., Crane, M., Harrison, D., Herbert, R., et al. (2012) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.03.011 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Self-citationThe invisible scars of emotional abuse: a common and highly harmful form of childhood maltreatment
Gama, C. M. F., Portugal, L. C. L., Gonçalves, R., de Souza, S., Vilete, L. M. P., Mendlowicz, M. V., Figueira, I. L. D. V., Volchan, E., David, I. A., Oliveira, L., et al. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03134-0 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“However, the prevalence of PTSD among the general population is less than 10% [13, 14].”
BackgroundCognitive Processing Therapy for veterans with comorbid PTSD and alcohol use disorders
Kaysen, D. L., Schumm, J. A., Pedersen, E. R., Seim, R. W., Bedard‐Gilligan, M. A., & Chard, K. M. (2013) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2013.08.016 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Speech‐based markers for posttraumatic stress disorder in US veterans
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“…other psychiatric problems (e.g., depression, substance use disorder), neuropsychological impairment, suicidality, physical health problems and increased mortality, reduced resiliency, unemployment, and family/couples impairment (Marx et al., 2009; Monson et al., 2009; Pietrzak et al., 2009, 2011).”
Simon, N. A., Robertson, L., Lewis, C., Roberts, N. P., Bethell, A., Dawson, S., & Bisson, J. I. (2021) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd011710.pub3 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
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“Subthreshold PTSD was defined by the presence of at least one symptom in each criterion “cluster,” or meeting full symptom criteria for at least two symptom clusters (Mitchell et al., 2012; Pietrzak et al., 2011; Schnurr, Friedman, & Rosenberg, 1993).”
MethodNichter, B., Norman, S. B., Haller, M. M., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2019) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2019.109744 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Self-citationMindfulness and yoga for psychological trauma: systematic review and meta-analysis
Taylor, J., McLean, L., Korner, A., Stratton, E., & Glozier, N. (2020) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2020.1760167 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“It has been causally associated with anxiety, mood, impulse, psychosis, substance, personality, and conduct disorders as well as lifetime suicidality (Kessler et al., 2005; Pietrzak et al., 2011).”
BackgroundEfficacy and acceptability of interventions for co-occurring PTSD and SUD: A meta-analysis
Simpson, T. L., Goldberg, S. B., Louden, D. N., Blakey, S. M., Hawn, S. E., Lott, A. M. K., Browne, K. C., Lehavot, K., & Kaysen, D. L. (2021) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2021.102490 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
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Barrera, T. L., Mott, J. M., Hofstein, R. F., & Teng, E. J. (2013) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2012.09.005 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Epigenetic mechanisms of alcoholism and stress-related disorders
Palmisano, M., & Pandey, S. C. (2017) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2017.01.001 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Schmertz, S. K., & Gerardi, M. A. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118528563.wbcbt43 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
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Lobo, I., Portugal, L. C. L., Figueira, I. L. D. V., Volchan, E., David, I. A., Pereira, M. G., & Oliveira, L. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.05.015 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
“Although these “clean” profiles are quite unusual in PTSD studies (Pietrzak et al., 2011), it is important to know the behavior of the relevant biomarkers in these cases, especially when considering using these biomarkers in people with acute PTSD to investigate vulnerability to develop chronic…”
BackgroundNeuroclinical Framework for the Role of Stress in Addiction
Kwako, L. E., & Koob, G. F. (2017) · Chronic Stress · doi:10.1177/2470547017698140 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Gluck, R. L., Hartzell, G., Dixon, H. D., Michopoulos, V., Powers, A. D., Stevens, J. S., Fani, N., Carter, S. E., Schwartz, A. C., Jovanović, T., et al. (2021) · Archives of Women s Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s00737-021-01141-4 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“time PTSD (54% compared with 6–8%) (Pietrzak et al. 2011).”
Grella, C. E., Lovinger, K., & Warda, U. S. (2013) · Women & Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/08974454.2013.743376 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Hassija, C. M., Luterek, J. A., Naragon‐Gainey, K., Moore, S. A., & Simpson, T. L. (2011) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2011.621948 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
“Compared with those who have not experienced trauma, trauma-exposed individuals are at elevated risk for developing mental health conditions, most commonly, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression and substance use disorders (Kessler, Sonnega, Bromet, Hughes, & Nelson, 1995 ; Pietrzak, Goldstein, Southwick, &…”
BackgroundContractor, A. A., Elhai, J. D., Fine, T. H., Tamburrino, M., Cohen, G. H., Shirley, E. R., Chan, P. K., Liberzon, I., Galea, S., & Calabrese, J. R. (2015) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2015.05.014 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Walter, K. H., Levine, J. A., Highfill‐McRoy, R. M., Navarro, M., & Thomsen, C. J. (2018) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.22337 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Application of Noninvasive Vagal Nerve Stimulation to Stress-Related Psychiatric Disorders
Bremner, J. D., Gurel, N. Z., Wittbrodt, M. T., Shandhi, M. M. H., Rapaport, M. H., Nye, J. A., Pearce, B. D., Vaccarino, V., Shah, A. J., Park, J., et al. (2020) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm10030119 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Similarly, PTSD affects 6% of the population at some time in their lives [7].”
BackgroundPosttraumatic Stress, Heart Rate Variability, and the Mediating Role of Behavioral Health Risks
Dennis, P. A., Watkins, L. L., Calhoun, P. S., Oddone, A. E., Sherwood, A., Dennis, M. F., Rissling, M. B., & Beckham, J. C. (2014) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000000110 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“Individuals with PTSD are at least twice as likely as nonaffected individuals to smoke (51,52), 1.”
BackgroundKilling and latent classes of PTSD symptoms in Iraq and Afghanistan veterans
Maguen, S., Madden, E., Bosch, J. O., Galatzer‐Levy, I. R., Knight, S. J., Litz, B. T., Marmar, C. R., & McCaslin, S. E. (2012) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2012.08.021 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in Japan: Results from the World Mental Health Japan Survey
Kawakami, N., Tsuchiya, M., Umeda, M., Koenen, K. C., & Kessler, R. C. (2014) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2014.01.015 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
“…exposures and/or a conditional risk of PTSD by the type of trauma exposure (Breslau et al., 1998; Bruce et al., 2001; Kessler et al., 1995; Norris et al., 2003; Pietrzak et al., 2011; Zlotnick et al., 2006), both of which could vary among countries depending on the social and cultural background.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPresenting Concerns of Veterans Entering Treatment for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Rosen, C. S., Adler, E. P., & Tiêt, Q. Q. (2013) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.21841 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Primitive mechanisms of trauma response: an evolutionary perspective on trauma-related disorders.
Baldwin, D. V. (2013) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.06.004 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Bassett, D. R., Buchwald, D., & Manson, S. M. (2013) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-013-0759-y · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“patients with full PTSD, as diagnosed by DSM-IV criteria [6].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialTrauma and Stressor-Related Disorders
Walsh, K., Wells, J. B., Lurie, B., & Koenen, K. C. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-13060-6_6 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
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“…is a considerable reduction, or perhaps no engagement with a therapist, tolerability may be problematic, particularly when concerning exposure work in i-CBT with a trauma-focus, which may require an individual to recount distressing trauma memories (Pietrzak, Goldstein, Southwick, & Grant, 2011).”
BackgroundPredictors and mental health outcomes of potentially traumatic event exposure
Overstreet, C. M., Berenz, E. C., Kendler, K. S., Dick, D. M., & Amstadter, A. B. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.10.047 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“, 2011), and negative mental health outcomes as evidenced by previous work (Pietrzak et al., 2011) and the present study, a history of trauma pre-college entry among many students raises clinical implications regarding university Overstreet et al.”
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Knowles, K. A., Sripada, R. K., Defever, M. E., & Rauch, S. A. M. (2018) · Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy · doi:10.1037/tra0000383 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Given that comorbid substance use is typically high among individuals with PTSD (e.g., Pietrzak et al., 2011), this is a significant limitation of the current article, which considers only mood and anxiety comorbidities.”
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a systemic disorder: Pathways to cardiovascular disease.
Krantz, D. S., Shank, L. M., & Goodie, J. L. (2021) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0001127 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Substance use modulates stress reactivity: Behavioral and physiological outcomes
Fosnocht, A. Q., & Briand, L. A. (2016) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.02.024 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
Affective vulnerability in substance use disorders
McHugh, R. K., & Kneeland, E. T. (2019) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2019.01.011 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Co-occurring mood, anxiety and traumatic-stress related disorders are highly prevalent among people with SUDs [3, 4], and are also prospectively associated with risk for the development of problematic substance use and SUDs [5].”
BackgroundThe Psychedelic Future of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Treatment
Zaretsky, T. G., Jagodnik, K. M., Barsic, R., Antonio, J. H., Bonanno, P. A., MacLeod, C., Pierce, C., Carney, H., Morrison, M. T., Saylor, C. F., et al. (2024) · Current Neuropharmacology · doi:10.2174/1570159x22666231027111147 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
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An experience sampling study of PTSD and alcohol-related problems.
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Initial Assessment of Post-traumatic Stress in a US Cohort of Inflammatory Bowel Disease Patients
Taft, T., Bedell, A., Craven, M. R. A., Guadagnoli, L. A., Quinton, S., & Hanauer, S. B. (2019) · Inflammatory Bowel Diseases · doi:10.1093/ibd/izz032 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
- Authors
- Pietrzak, R. H., Goldstein, R. B., Southwick, S. M., & Grant, B. F.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Pietrzak, Robert H.
- Venue
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-04
- Volume
- 25
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 456-465
- ISSN
- 0887-6185 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC3051041
- OpenAlex
- W1969551391
- Cited by
- 963
- References
- 87
- Citations by year
- 2026: 32 · 2025: 55 · 2024: 69 · 2023: 69 · 2022: 88 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 102 · 2019: 84 · 2018: 75 · 2017: 70 · 2016: 64 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 18
- FWCI
- 24.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Anxiety Disorders (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA)
- National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)
- Intramural Program of the National Institutes of Health, National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism
- National Center for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Migration, Health and Trauma
- Keywords
- post-traumatic stress disorder, PTSD prevalence, psychiatric comorbidity, Axis I disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, substance use disorders, suicide attempts, sex differences, trauma exposure, sexual assault, unexpected death, psychosocial impairment, NESARC
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Health Surveys, Humans, Life Change Events, Male, Middle Aged, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Stress Disorders, Post-Traumatic, United States, Comorbidity, Prevalence, Mood Disorders, Substance-Related Disorders
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