A review of potential metabolic etiologies of the observed association between red meat consumption and development of type 2 diabetes mellitus
Abstract
Epidemiological studies suggest that red and processed meat consumption is related to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes. However, it is not clearly understood which components of red and processed meat contribute to this increased risk. This review examines potential mechanisms addressing the role of saturated fatty acid, sodium, advanced glycation end products (AGEs), nitrates/nitrites, heme iron, trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), branched amino acids (BCAAs) and endocrine disruptor chemicals (EDCs) in the development of type 2 diabetes based on data from published clinical trials and animal models. TMAO which is derived from dietary carnitine and choline by the action of bacterial enzymes followed by oxidation in the liver may be a strong candidate molecule mediating the risk of type 2 diabetes. BCAAs may induce insulin resistance via the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and ribosomal protein S6 kinase β 1 (S6k1)-associated pathways. The increased risk associated with processed meat compared with red meat suggests that there are interactions between the saturated fat, salt, and nitrates in processed meat and iron, AGEs and TMAO. Intervention studies are required to clarify potential mechanisms and explore interactions among components, in order to make firm recommendations on red and processed meat consumption.
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Risk for diabetes from red and processed meats may be linked to iron content as well as possibly lipid and amino acid metabolites, advanced glycation end products, trimethylamine N-oxide, and nitrates/nitrites.
“Mechanisms require further study, but risk for diabetes may be linked to iron content179, 180 as well as possibly lipid and amino acid metabolites, advanced glycation end products, trimethylamine N-oxide, and nitrates/nitrites.181, 182”
From Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity: A Comprehensive Review (2016) · cites this paper as [182]
Intake of yogurt, but not milk, is consistently associated with lower incidence of diabetes; cheese intake also associates with lower diabetes risk in several although not all studies.
“For example, intake of yogurt, but not milk, is consistently associated with lower incidence of diabetes; while intake of cheese, which has high calorie, fat, and saturated fat content, also associates with lower diabetes risk in several although not all studies.57, 179-184, 224, 226-228”
From Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity: A Comprehensive Review (2016) · cites this paper as [182]
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“lipid and amino acid metabolites, advanced glycation end products, trimethylamine N-oxide, and nitrates/nitrites.(181,182) In sum, these findings provide little support for conven-”
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- Authors
- Kim, Y., Keogh, J., & Clifton, P.
- Affiliations
- University of South Australia (AU)
- Corresponding author
- Clifton, Peter
- Venue
- Metabolism
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-07
- Volume
- 64
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 768-779
- ISSN
- 0026-0495 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2071668062
- Cited by
- 181
- References
- 128
- Citations by year
- 2026: 12 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 14 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 16 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 6
- FWCI
- 2.22
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Metabolism (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Health and Medical Research Council
- University of South Australia
- Government of South Australia
- National Heart Foundation of Australia
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Nutritional Studies and Diet
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diet, Metabolism, and Disease
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Animal Science and Zoology › Meat and Animal Product Quality
- Keywords
- red meat consumption, processed meat, type 2 diabetes, saturated fatty acids, sodium, advanced glycation end products, nitrite/nitrate, heme iron, trimethylamine N-oxide, branched-chain amino acids, endocrine disruptors, insulin resistance, mTORC1 signaling
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Clinical Trials as Topic, Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2, Diet, Humans, Meat, Risk
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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