Beliefs in conspiracy theories following ostracism

Poon, Kai-Tak; Chen, Zhansheng; Wong, Wing-Yan

doi:10.1177/0146167219898944

Cited by 115Death Anxiety and Social ExclusionMisinformation and Its ImpactsSocial and Intergroup Psychology

Beliefs in conspiracy theories following ostracism

Poon, Kai-Tak, Chen, Zhansheng, Wong, Wing-Yan·2020·Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin

DOI 10.1177/0146167219898944

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Abstract

Four studies (total valid N = 643) examined whether ostracism increases people’s political conspiracy beliefs through heightened vulnerability and whether self-affirmation intervention counteracts the effect of ostracism on conspiracy beliefs. Compared with their nonostracized counterparts, ostracized participants were more likely to endorse conspiracy beliefs related to different political issues (Studies 1–3). Moreover, heightened vulnerability mediated the link between ostracism and conspiracy beliefs (Studies 1–3). Offering ostracized participants an opportunity to reaffirm values important to them could reduce their political conspiracy beliefs (Study 4). Taken together, our findings highlight the crucial role of vulnerability in understanding when and why ostracism increases conspiracy beliefs and how to ameliorate this relationship. Our findings also provide novel insights into how daily interpersonal interactions influence people’s political beliefs and involvement.

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Conspiracy beliefs are higher when people want to feel safe and in control.
“(3) feel safe and in control [36][37][38].”
From The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories (2020) · cites this paper as [37]

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Coninck, D. D., Frissen, T., Matthijs, K., d’Haenens, L., Lits, G., Champagne-Poirier, O., Carignan, M.-È., David, M. D., Pignard-Cheynel, N., Salerno, S., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646394 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
The dark side of social movements: social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theories
Sternisko, A., Cichocka, A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2020) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.02.007 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
The efficacy of interventions in reducing belief in conspiracy theories: A systematic review
O'Mahony, C., Brassil, M., Murphy, G., & Linehan, C. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0280902 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Individual, intergroup and nation-level influences on belief in conspiracy theories
Hornsey, M., Bierwiaczonek, K., Sassenberg, K., & Douglas, K. M. (2022) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-022-00133-0 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Conspiracy beliefs and the individual, relational, and collective selves
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., Cichocka, A., Sutton, R. M., & Douglas, K. M. (2021) · Social & Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12639 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Psychological benefits of believing conspiracy theories
van Prooijen, J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101352 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Contemporary trends in psychological research on conspiracy beliefs. A systematic review
Pilch, I., Turska-Kawa, A., Wardawy, P., Olszanecka-Marmola, A., & Smołkowska-Jędo, W. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1075779 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“, 2021), anomie (Baier and Manzoni, 2020; Majima and Nakamura, 2020), ostracism (Poon et al., 2020), corruption perception (Milošević Ðord̄ević et al.”
Cause and effect: On the antecedents and consequences of conspiracy theory beliefs
Uscinski, J. E., Enders, A. M., Klofstad, C., & Stoler, J. B. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101364 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
How social identity shapes conspiratorial belief
Robertson, C. E., Pretus, C., Rathje, S., Harris, E. A., & Van Bavel, J. J. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101423 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“Past work has found that social identity-related goals (e.g. the desire to belong within a group) increase belief in conspiracy theories, such that people are more likely to endorse conspiracy theories after suffering social exclusion (Poon et al., 2020).”
Background
Reasons to believe: A systematic review and meta-analytic synthesis of the motives associated with conspiracy beliefsPreprint
Biddlestone, M., Green, R., Douglas, K. M., Azevedo, F., Sutton, R. M., & Cichocka, A. K. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/rxjqc · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Social Verification Theory: A New Way to Conceptualize Validation, Dissonance, and Belonging
Hillman, J. G., Fowlie, D. I., & MacDonald, T. K. (2022) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683221138384 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“While these conspiracy groups often originate from harmful or xenophobic beliefs (Dugan & Fisher, 2022), conspiratorial thinking stems from, in part, feelings of vulnerability and ostracism (Poon et al., 2020).”
Background
Getting Less Likes on Social Media: Mindfulness Ameliorates the Detrimental Effects of Feeling Left Out Online
Poon, K., & Jiang, Y. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01313-w · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Self-citation
Just world beliefs, personal success and beliefs in conspiracy theories
Furnham, A. F. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01576-z · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Injustice Without Evidence: The Unique Role of Conspiracy Theories in Social Justice Research
van Prooijen, J. (2021) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-021-00376-x · Cited by 44 · see citing works
“, 2018), impactful and negative societal events (Van Prooijen & Van Dijk, 2014), experiences of social exclusion (Poon et al., 2020), relative deprivation and discrimination”
Background
Conspiracy Theories: A Public Health Concern and How to Address It
Leonard, M., & Philippe, F. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.682931 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
“They often have a short-term modest effect (Tannenbaum et al., 2015), mostly among people who are already in agreement with the message, but they fail to change the behaviors of the target group for which they were developed (Ruiter et al., 2014).”
Background
Believing in nothing and believing in everything: The underlying cognitive paradox of anti-COVID-19 vaccine attitudes
Newman, D., Lewandowsky, S., & Mayo, R. (2022) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2022.111522 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Putting oneself in someone's shoes: The effect of observing ostracism on physical pain, social pain, negative emotion, and self-regulation
Poon, K., Jiang, Y., & Teng, F. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110217 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Self-citation
Awake together: Sociopsychological processes of engagement in conspiracist communities
Wagner‐Egger, P., Bangerter, A., Delouvée, S., & Diéguez, S. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101417 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Loneliness trajectories over three decades are associated with conspiracist worldviews in midlife
Bierwiaczonek, K., Fluit, S., von Soest, T., Hornsey, M., & Kunst, J. (2024) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-024-47113-x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“So far, experimental results show that manipulating ostracism increases participants ’ conspiracy beliefs, which aligns with our ﬁ ndings 51 .”
Does Belief in Conspiracy Theories Affect Interpersonal Relationships?
Toribio‐Flórez, D., Green, R., Sutton, R. M., & Douglas, K. M. (2023) · The Spanish Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1017/sjp.2023.8 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“However, the social isolation of conspiracy believers may accelerate their fall into the rabbit hole of conspiracy theories (Poon et al., 2020; van Prooijen, 2016), increase their need to create new dyadic bonds with other like-minded conspiracy believers (Biddlestone et al., 2021), and ultimately…”
Background
Effectiveness of Self-Affirmation Interventions in Educational Settings: A Meta-Analysis
Escobar-Soler, C., Berríos, R., Peñaloza-Díaz, G., Melis-Rivera, C., Caqueo-Urízar, A., Ponce-Correa, F., & Flores, J. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare12010003 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Psychosocial and behavioural consequences of ostracism across contexts
Chen, Z.-S., Poon, K.-T., Jiang, T., & Teng, F. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00393-y · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Relatedly, correlational and experimental findings showed that ostracism or social exclusion increased conspiracy and superstitious beliefs because it threatened the sense of control and meaning of individuals and increased their perceived psychological vulnerability 12,40,57 .”
InfluentialSelf-citation
Conspiracy theory beliefs in the adolescent population: A systematic review.
Byrne, A., Martin, D., Jones, C., Galbraith, N., & Mercer, T. (2024) · Journal des adolescens · doi:10.1002/jad.12316 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Conspiracy narratives and vaccine hesitancy: a scoping review of prevalence, impact, and interventions
Taubert, F., Meyer-Hoeven, G., Schmid, P., Gerdes, P., & Betsch, C. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-20797-y · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Left Out—Feelings of Social Exclusion Incite Individuals with High Conspiracy Mentality to Reject Complex Scientific Messages
Schnepf, J., Lux, A., Jin, Z., & Formanowicz, M. (2021) · Journal of Language and Social Psychology · doi:10.1177/0261927x211044789 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Many studies have confirmed the first path of the ETM showing that experiences of social exclusion lead to increased endorsement of conspiracy theories (Graeupner & Coman, 2017; Poon et al., 2020).”
Threshold of Adversity: Resilience and the Prevention of Extremism Through Education
Benjamin, S., Gearon, L., Kuusisto, A., & Koirikivi, P. (2021) · Nordic Studies in Education · doi:10.23865/nse.v41.2593 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The dark side of social movements: Social identity, non-conformity, and the lure of conspiracy theoriesPreprint
Sternisko, A., Cichocka, A. K., & Bavel, J. J. V. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wvqes · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Stuck in companionless days, end up in sleepless nights: relationships between ostracism, rumination, insomnia, and subjective well-being
Jiang, Y., & Poon, K. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-021-01474-4 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citation
Trust or distrust? Neither! The right mindset for confronting disinformation
Mayo, R. (2023) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101779 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Misplaced certainty in the context of conspiracy theories
Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, A., Jung, J., & Ökten, I. O. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101393 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Understanding the impact of misinformation on adolescents
Ma, I., Sultan, M., Kozyreva, A., & van den Bos, W. (2025) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-025-02338-8 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“In addition, social exclusion has been linked to increased conspiracy beliefs 32 .”
Impact of Co-Worker Ostracism on Organizational Citizenship Behavior Through Employee Self-Identity: The Moderating Role of Ethical Leadership
Zhang, L., Liu, Z., & Li, X. (2023) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s415036 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“32,33 Employee self-identity is diminished, which reduces their citizenship behaviors toward the organizational interests.”
The relationships between narcissistic admiration, rivalry, and interpersonal trust in adolescents: The mediating effect of ostracism experience
Dong, Y. H., Wen, W., Zhang, D., & Fang, Y. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105521 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Positive Polly or Debbie Downer? How Social Exclusion Affects Consumer’s Online Information Sharing
Dong, M., & Saini, R. (2023) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2023.114126 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Does Lower Psychological Need Satisfaction Foster Conspiracy Belief? Longitudinal Effects Over 3 Years in New Zealand
Albath, E. A., Greifeneder, R., Douglas, K. M., Cichocka, A. K., Marques, M. D., Wilson, M., Kerr, J. R., Sibley, C. G., & Osborne, D. (2024) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672241292841 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Consistent with the argument that conspiracy belief stems from a lack of psychological need satisfaction (Douglas et al., 2017; Poon et al., 2020), lower-than-usual levels of control and belonging preceded increases in conspiracy belief a year later.”
Influential
A network analysis on the relationship between loneliness and schizotypy
Chau, A. K. C., So, S. H., Sun, X., Zhu, C., Chiu, C., Chan, R. C. K., & Leung, P. W. L. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.05.057 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Fictional friends and enemies as first aid after ostracism? Experimentally investigating the potential of para-/orthosocial relationships in belongingness need restoration and emotion regulation
Lutz, S., Schneider, F. M., Reich, S., Schimmel, M., Oechler, H., & Beinlich, L. (2024) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqae009 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
“This condition has been successfully applied in social exclusion research (e.g., Poon et al., 2020; Rieger & Schneider, 2022) and enables more adequate comparisons than instructing participants to write about a time they watched whatever was on television (e.g., Sacco et al., 2021).”
Method
Anti-establishment sentiments: realistic and symbolic threat appraisals predict populist attitudes and conspiracy mentality
Abadi, D., van Prooijen, J. W., Krouwel, A., & Fischer, A. (2024) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2024.2360584 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“Threats have also been linked to increased conspi-racy beliefs (for overviews, see Douglas et al., 2019; Jolley et al., 2018; Kofta et al., 2020; Poon et al., 2020; Van Prooijen, 2020; Van Prooijen & Acker, 2015), but no studies to date have explicitly distinguished between different forms of…”
Sexual objectification increases retaliatory aggression
Poon, K., & Jiang, Y. (2020) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21889 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citation
The psychological study of conspiracy theories: Strengths and limitations
van Prooijen, J., & Imhoff, R. (2022) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2022.101465 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Green with envy: ostracism increases aggressive tendencies
Poon, K., To, N., Lo, W.-Y., Wong, N. H., Jiang, Y., & Chan, R. S. W. (2023) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-04221-5 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Because being ostracized increases perceived vulnerability to threats and dangers (Poon et al., 2020), ostracized people may maliciously envy others who are better off than they are, such as nonostracized individuals.”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The myth of regaining control: Ostracism increases superstitious tendencies
Poon, K., Wong, N. H., Lai, H., & Jiang, Y. (2022) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.12606 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citation
Engaging with Conspiracy Believers
Douglas, K. M., Sutton, R. M., Biddlestone, M., Green, R., & Toribio‐Flórez, D. (2024) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-024-00741-0 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Insomnia is associated with conspiracy mentality, psychological distress, and psychological well-being
Poon, K., Chan, R. S. W., Liang, J., & Li, L. M. W. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116384 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citation
Alternative beliefs in psychedelic drug users
Lebedev, A. V., Acar, K., Horntvedt, O., Cabrera, A., Simonsson, O., Osika, W., Ingvar, M., & Petrovic, P. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-42444-z · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Are rules made to be broken? Conspiracy exposure promotes aggressive behavior
Poon, K., Chan, R. S. W., & Lai, H. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12947 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citation
Pull yourself out of a dark place: Self-compassion moderates the relationships between ostracism, meaningful existence, and darkness judgment
Jiang, Y., & Poon, K. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-03838-w · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Research has robustly demonstrated that ostracism results in adverse psychological outcomes, such as impaired self-regulation (DeWall et al., 2008), increased suicidal thoughts (Chen et al., 2020), and engagement in conspiratorial thinking (Poon et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
When alienated from society, conspiracy theory belief gives meaning to life
Schnell, T., Viviani, R., Lenz, C., & Krampe, H. (2024) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e34557 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“The availability of new networks of like-minded individuals who know "what the world is really like" offers an alternative to disengagement from social ties and networks [66,67].”
Leaders' power construal influences malevolent creativity: The mediating role of organizational conspiracy beliefs
Fousiani, K., Xu, S., & van Prooijen, J. (2025) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.70005 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Perceived ostracism and paranoia: A test of potential moderating effects of psychological flexibility and inflexibility
Waldeck, D., Pancani, L., Morris, E. M. J., Adie, J. W., Holliman, A. J., & Tyndall, I. T. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-04008-8 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“, feeling ignored repeatedly) may lead to greater vulnerability and a tendency to be hyper-vigilant to detect potential threats in the environment (Poon et al., 2020).”
Background
Owners of a conspiratorial heart? Investigating the longitudinal relationship between loneliness and conspiracy beliefs
Bertlich, T., Bräscher, A., Germer, S., Witthöft, M., & Imhoff, R. (2025) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12865 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Both arguments above receive indirect support through research that shows that experimentally inducing ostracism increased the endorsement of conspiracy theories (Poon et al., 2020).”
Refusing to Pay Taxes
Jolley, D., Paterson, J. L., & Thomas, R. A. (2023) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000529 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Going beyond simplicity: Using machine learning to predict belief in conspiracy theories
Brandenstein, N. (2022) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2859 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Bullying and Conspiracy Theories
Jolley, D., & Lantian, A. (2022) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000492 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
A moderated mediation effect of symbolic and substantive preventive actions on employees’ preventive behavior in the context of Covid‐19
Nawaz, A., Soomro, S. A., Batool, S., Shaikh, H. R., & Aslam, A. (2022) · Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy · doi:10.1111/asap.12337 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
The Unmanliness of Ostracism: The Role of Masculine Gender Role Stress and Intimate Partner Violence in Men’s Mental Health
Chan, R. S. W., & Poon, K. (2023) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-023-01410-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…et al., 2021 for a review), including focused attention (Molet et al., 2013), self-compassion (Koch, 2020), growth mindset (Poon et al., 2013; Poon & Chen, 2016), nature exposure (Poon et al., 2016 ), and self-affirmation exercises (Chen et al., 2020; Hales et al., 2016; Poon et al., 2020).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Great and Lonely?
Rogoza, M., Marchlewska, M., Rogoza, R., Molenda, Z., Szczepańska, D., Adamczyk, D., Szczęsna, M., & Witke, D. (2024) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000560 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ostracism threatens certainty: a single-laboratory meta-analysis
Hales, A. H. (2025) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2025.2572649 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“…lead to prosocial connection in many cases; however, in situations where the available groups are extreme, radical, or exist to promote dubious causes, this responses could produce behaviors with concerning outcomes (Hales & Williams, 2018; Pfundmair, 2019; Poon et al., 2020; Wood & Hales, 2024).”
Consequences of ostracism and potential interventions to mitigate its negative outcomes
Chen, Z., Tian, Y., Feng, Q., & Poon, K. (2025) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2025.2572653 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“For example, our findings revealed that ostracized individuals were more prone to endorsing conspiracy theories, driven by the heightened vulnerability following ostracism (Poon et al., 2020).”
Self-citation
Effects of two different social exclusion paradigms on ambiguous facial emotion recognition
Ghandchi, A., Golbabaei, S., & Borhani, K. (2023) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2023.2285862 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“Our ﬁ nding regarding the positive a ﬀ ect is in line with other studies that found Ostracism Online impacts participants ’ a ﬀ ect (Lee et al., 2020; Poon et al., 2020; Reich et al., 2023; Ren et al., 2021; Schneider et al., 2017).”
Result
True discernment or blind scepticism? Comparing the effectiveness of four conspiracy belief interventions
O’Mahony, C., Murphy, G., & Linehan, C. (2024) · advances in/psychology · doi:10.56296/aip00030 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Ostracism negatively impacts working self‐perceptions of personality
Wirth, J. H., Hales, A. H., & Buelow, M. T. (2024) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3058 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Conspiracy beliefs and COVID-19 guideline adherence in adolescent psychiatric outpatients: the predictive role of adverse childhood experiences
Goreis, A., Pfeffer, B., Zesch, H. E., Klinger, D., Reiner, T., Bock, M. M., Ohmann, S., Sackl‐Pammer, P., Werneck‐Rohrer, S., Eder, H., et al. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-022-00554-y · Cited by 5 · see citing works
“Another study has shown a causal link between ostracism—often reported by adolescents with peer problems and traumatic experiences—and endorsement of conspiracies in a general population sample [38].”
Background
Lost in the Information Maze: Understanding the Multiple Drivers of QAnon Online Conspiracy Theories
Hodson, J., & Gosse, C. E. (2022) · Canadian Journal of Communication · doi:10.3138/cjc.2022-07-26 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Ostracism as a threat to modern democracies: Evidence from 11 European countries
Bogatyreva, N., Albath, E. A., & Greifeneder, R. (2024) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.13046 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“In line with this notion, recent research suggests that ostracized individuals are more likely to endorse political conspiracy theories (Poon et al., 2020).”
The social psychology of conspiracy theories: Key insights and future challenges
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2025) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2024.10.004 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The social determinants of misinformation
Williams, S. N., & van der Linden, S. (2025) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.r782 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
A moth to a flame? Fulfilling connectedness needs through romantic relationships protects conspiracy theorists against COVID-19 misinformation
Murray, S. L., Xia, J., Lamarche, V. M., Seery, M. D., McNulty, J. K., Griffin, D. W., Ward, D. E., Jung, H. Y., Hicks, L. L., & Dubois, D. (2023) · Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cresp.2023.100111 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Verschwörungstheorien im digitalen Raum
Imhoff, R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-66608-1_16 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Isolated But Not Necessarily Lonely
Galgali, M., Helm, P. J., & Arndt, J. (2024) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000420 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Conspiracy mentality in autistic and non-autistic individuals
Roels, S. P., Begeer, S., Scheeren, A. M., & van Prooijen, J. (2024) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546805.2024.2399505 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Slippery Slope of Perceived Objectification: The Effect of Ostracism on Nonsuicidal Self‐Injury
Poon, K., & Chan, R. S. W. (2025) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.70046 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citation
Why existential threats increase conspiracy beliefs: Evidence for the mediating roles of agency detection and pattern perception
Mao, J., Zeng, Z.-X., Yang, S.-L., Guo, Y.-Y., Wang, B., & van Prooijen, J. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70016 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…(Mashuri & Zaduqisti, 2014), perceive intergroup threats from other countries (Mashuri & Zaduqisti, 2015), perceive higher ostracism threats (Poon et al., 2020), feel their personal image is threatened (Cichocka et al., 2016), experience increased racial discrimination (Crocker et al.,…”
The roles of need frustration and regulatory focus in conspiratorial thinking
Hunsinger, M., & Parker, M. (2025) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2025.102188 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Watching for a snake in the grass: Objectification increases conspiracy beliefs.
Poon, K.-T., Chan, R. S. W., Lai, H.-S., Jiang, Y., & Teng, F. (2024) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12768 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citation
Leveraging Motivations to Curb Misinformation
Saucier, C. J., Calabrese, C., & Walter, N. (2025) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000481 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
A Study of Discourse on COVID-19 Vaccines from Conspiracy Communities on Reddit Using Topic Modeling and Sentiment Analysis
Zhou, C., & Zhao, Y. (2025) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2025.2505212 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Research indicated that being ostra-cized and marginalized from other communities played a significant role in people joining and remaining within conspiracy communities (Phadke et al., 2021; Poon et al., 2020).”
So Emotional? The Role of Emotions for Young Adults’ Resilience to Disinformation
Kont, J., Bozdağ, Ç., Elving, W. J. L., & Broersma, M. (2026) · Media and Communication · doi:10.17645/mac.11398 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Reducing these feelings of exclusion, for example, through self‐affirmation, has been shown to weaken conspiracy theory endorsement (Poon et al., 2020).”
Conspiracies and contagion: Two patterns of COVID-19 related beliefs associated with distinct mental symptomatology
Juárez, F. P.-G., Solomonova, E., Nephtali, E., & Gold, I. (2023) · Psychiatry Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.psycom.2023.100153 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Clinging to Certainty: Mental Health Anthropologies and Dualisms in Post-Pandemic Britain
Lloyd, C. E. M. (2025) · Journal of Disability & Religion · doi:10.1080/23312521.2024.2441429 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Psychologists recognize that to alleviate stress and regain a sense of control, personal feelings of threat and stress often need to be cognitively projected to a social out-group or power (Poon et al., 2020).”
Echoes of the group: how group conspiracy mentality and fake news shape customer uncertainty and risk perception in a supply chain context
Ghosh, V., & Kabra, G. (2025) · Enterprise Information Systems · doi:10.1080/17517575.2025.2462971 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“Social media often exacerbates misinformation, particularly about out-groups, as individuals seek to support their in-group identity (Poon, Chen, and Wong 2020).”
The Appraisal Model of Conspiracy Theories (AMCT): Highlighting Core Concepts and Potential Extensions
Pummerer, L., Gkinopoulos, T., Douglas, K. M., Jolley, D., & Sassenberg, K. (2024) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2025.2454118 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“…from the broader definition not only from us, but one commonly seen in the literature (see e.g. Imhoff et al., 2018; Jolley & Paterson, 2020; Kofta et al., 2020; Nera et al., 2024; Poon et al., 2020) that actions benefiting the conspirators are typically also perceived as “harmful” and “evil.””
Conspiracy theories and self-worth: can self-affirmation help explain the adoption of conspiracy theories?
Saucier, C. J., & Walter, N. (2025) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1093/hcr/hqaf012 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
EVALUATION OF BELIEF IN COVID-19 MYTHS AND LEVELS OF COVID-19 ANXIETY AND PERCEPTION OF HEALTH IN PREGNANCY
Kakaşçı, Ç. G., & Durmaz, A. (2022) · Karya Journal of Health Science · doi:10.52831/kjhs.1101468 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Critical Thinking about Conspiracies (CTAC) Test: Development and ValidationPreprint
O’Mahony, C., Linehan, C., & Murphy, G. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xvbh3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Connecting Conspiracy Beliefs and Experiences of Social Exclusion
Imhoff, R. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009408165.014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Assessment of the construct of paranoia in a non-clinical sample: validation of the paranoia scale based on a continuum model
فسخودی, م. ا., Arani, A. M., Rudsari, A. B., Mazaheri, M., Shahi, A., Fatollahzadeh, S., & Vahid, M. K. A. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02821-x · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“In such a way that, both involve this idea that harmful outcomes can be attributed to malevolent agents rather than to more benign causes which both are represent suspicion and can be in paranoia [18].”
Antecedents and consequences of science-related conspiracy beliefs.
Douglas, K. M. (2025) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2025.102191 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Critical Thinking About Conspiracies (CTAC) Test: Development and Validation
O'Mahony, C., Murphy, M., Linehan, C., & Murphy, G. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70120 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Psychological resilience to propaganda in the contemporary information space
Miljković, U. (2025) · Vojno delo · doi:10.5937/vojdelo2504059m · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mind in Doubt and Isolated Soul: Examining Longitudinal Relationships Between Conspiracy Beliefs Related to COVID ‐19, Interpersonal Trust, Loneliness and Social Exclusion
Godžáková, D., & Šrol, J. (2026) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.70267 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
La influencia de la necesidad de cierre cognitivo en la creencia en teorías conspirativas genéricas en población militar
Passero, M. T., Tovim, J. B., & Jaume, L. C. (2023) · Revista Científica Arbitrada de la Fundación MenteClara · doi:10.32351/rca.v8.331 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Experimental manipulation of uncanny feeling does not increase adherence to conspiracy theories.
Varet, F., Adam-Troian, J., Bonetto, E., Akinyemi, A., Lantian, A., Voisin, D., & Delouvée, S. (2023) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12962 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“…in explaining CTs was supported by studies that showed greater adherence to CTs among people who experience ostracism (Graeupner & Coman, 2017; Poon, Chen & Wong, 2020), collectivist values (Adam-Troian et al ., 2021), defensive in-group identity, or collective narcissism (Bertin, Marinthe,…”
Result
The Time to Delve Deeper: Understanding the Consequences of Conspiracy Theories and Moving Forward
Poon, K., Fang, Z.-Y., & Li, L. M. W. (2024) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2024.2442932 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“For example, Poon et al. (2020) conducted three studies and found that ostracism increases psychological vulnerability, which in turn increases individuals’ propensity to endorse conspiracy beliefs.”
Self-citation
Effectiveness of the Scientific Reasoning Intervention on Reducing Online Conspiracy Beliefs and Misinformation Engagement: A Study Using the (Mis)Information Game
Georgiou, N., Balzan, R. P., Butler, L. H., van Antwerpen, N., Prike, T., & Delfabbro, P. (2025) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.70069 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Awake together: Sociopsychological processes of engagement in conspiracist communitiesPreprint
Wagner‐Egger, P., Bangerter, A., Delouvée, S., & Diéguez, S. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/b9u45 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Ostracism in the era of COVID-19: Intrapersonal, interpersonal, and intergroup perspectivesPreprint
Gkinopoulos, T., & Galanaki, E. P. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/45fg9 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Conspiracies and contagion: COVID-19 related beliefs and associated mental health symptomatologyPreprint
Juárez, F. P.-G., Solomonova, E., Nephtali, E., & Gold, I. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/8bfxz · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Left out – Feelings of social exclusion incite individuals with high conspiracy mentality to reject complex scientific messagesPreprint
Schnepf, J., Lux, A., Formanowicz, M., & Jin, Z. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gwx2z

Authors: Poon, K.-T., Chen, Z., & Wong, W.-Y.
Affiliations: Education University of Hong Kong (HK)
University of Hong Kong (HK)
Corresponding author: Poon, Kai-Tak
ORCID: Poon, Kai-Tak
Chen, Zhansheng
Venue: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 2020-01-12
Volume: 46
Issue: 8
Pages: 1234-1246
ISSN: 0146-1672 (ISSN-L)
1552-7433
DOI: 10.1177/0146167219898944
OpenAlex: W3000031813
Cited by: 115
References: 90
Citations by year: 2026: 11 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 21 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 6
FWCI: 16.12
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: The Hong Kong Research Grants Council’s Early Career Scheme (28603715)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: ostracism, conspiracy beliefs, vulnerability, self-affirmation, political participation, interpersonal rejection, political beliefs
MeSH terms: Adult, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Politics, Psychological Theory, Social Isolation, Trust

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Beliefs in conspiracy theories following ostracism

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