Cited by 183Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental ImpactsFecal contamination and water qualityWastewater Treatment and Reuse

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 75 of the 81 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 115 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.

Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer

Open access

Schaider, Laurel A., Ackerman, Janet M., Rudel, Ruthann A.·2016·Science of The Total Environment

DOI 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.081

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Abstract

Domestic drinking water wells serve 44 million people in the US and are common globally. They are often located in areas served by onsite wastewater treatment systems, including septic systems, which can be sources of biological and chemical pollutants to groundwater. In this study we tested 20 domestic drinking water wells in a sand and gravel aquifer on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, USA, for 117 organic wastewater compounds (OWCs) and for inorganic markers of septic system impact. We detected 27 OWCs, including 12 pharmaceuticals, five per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), four organophosphate flame retardants, and an artificial sweetener (acesulfame). Maximum concentrations of several PFASs and pharmaceuticals were relatively high compared to public drinking water supplies in the US. The number of detected OWCs and total concentrations of pharmaceuticals and of PFASs were positively correlated with nitrate, boron, and acesulfame and negatively correlated with well depth. These wells were all located in areas served exclusively by onsite wastewater treatment systems, which are likely the main source of the OWCs in these wells, although landfill leachate may also be a source. Our results suggest that current regulations to protect domestic wells from pathogens in septic system discharges do not prevent OWCs from reaching domestic wells, and that nitrate, a commonly measured drinking water contaminant, is a useful screening tool for OWCs in domestic wells. Nitrate concentrations of 1mg/L NO3-N, which are tenfold higher than local background and tenfold lower than the US federal drinking water standard, were associated with wastewater impacts from OWCs in this study.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In 20 domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 85% contained at least one organic wastewater compound, with acesulfame, PFASs, and pharmaceuticals most frequently detected. The authors conclude septic systems are likely the main source, with landfill or commercial wastewater also possible for some PFAS detections.

Key findings

Of 117 OWCs analyzed, 27 (23%) were detected in at least one well; 17 of 20 wells (85%) had ≥1 OWC, with a maximum of 13 OWCs in one well. Acesulfame was detected in 17 wells (85%), maximum 5300 ng/L; 12 pharmaceuticals were detected, and 13 wells (65%) had ≥1 pharmaceutical, including sulfamethoxazole in 9 wells (maximum 60 ng/L) and carbamazepine in 5 wells (maximum 62 ng/L).
Four PFASs (PFOS, PFHxS, PFBS, PFHxA) were detected in ≥50% of wells, and PFHpA in 30%; maximum concentrations were PFHxS 41 ng/L, PFBS 23 ng/L, PFOS 7 ng/L, and PFHxA 2 ng/L. PFOA was detected in blanks near sample levels; five wells had PFOA at 2–3 ng/L after subtracting the field blank.
OWC presence was correlated with nitrate, boron, and acesulfame and inversely correlated with well depth. Wells <15 m had higher median N detects (8 vs. 4 compounds), Σ[pharma] (5.0 vs. 0.4 ng/L), and Σ[PFAS] (6.0 vs. 0.5 ng/L) than deeper wells. Wells with >20 µg/L boron had 3.8 times more detectable OWCs, 7.4 times higher Σ[PFAS], and 8.8 times higher Σ[pharma] than wells with 10–20 µg/L boron.
Septic systems were the likely main source, but two wells with the highest Σ[PFAS] (72 and 26 ng/L) departed from the nitrate relationship, suggesting landfill or commercial sources; one well 3.2 km from a capped landfill had the highest acesulfame concentration (5300 ng/L) and PFHxS concentration (47 ng/L).

Methods

Recruited 110 volunteer wells, used GIS capture-zone land-use analysis plus nitrate and boron testing to select 20 domestic wells in Barnstable County, Cape Cod, Massachusetts, in areas served exclusively by onsite wastewater treatment systems; raw water samples were collected in February 2011.
Analyzed 117 target OWCs using solid-phase extraction with LC-MS/MS for PPCPs, hormones, PFASs, alkylphenols, and herbicides, and large-volume injection GC/MS for organophosphate flame retardants; nitrate was measured by ion chromatography, boron by ICP-MS, sodium by ICP-AES, and total nitrogen and TOC by combustion.
Used Spearman rank correlations (p < 0.05) between septic-impact indicators (nitrate, total N, boron, acesulfame, residential density, well depth) and three OWC metrics: total number of OWCs detected, sum of detected pharmaceutical concentrations, and sum of detected PFAS concentrations.

Limitations

Stated in the paper: well selection was not designed to be a statistical representation of domestic wells across Cape Cod; capture-zone estimates have considerable uncertainty without site-specific hydrogeological data; TOC correlations could not be tested because TOC was detectable in only five wells; PFOA was detected in laboratory and field blanks at levels close to sample concentrations; alkylphenol method detection limits were relatively high (10–92 ng/L); health-based guideline values were available for only 10 of the 27 detected OWCs, and toxicological data are limited.
Evident from the text: the study has a small sample (20 wells), a single sampling event in February 2011, and one region/aquifer, and it lacks isotopic or other source-confirmation analyses, limiting generalizability and causal attribution.

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Crossref · 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.081

Cites

75 of 75 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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Claims the paper makes

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In the paper
“Our maximum PFHxS concentration was also higher than 99.5% of treated tap water samples (N N 22,000) analyzed as part of US EPA's Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR3) testing (based on data presented in US EPA, 2015).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.3. PFASs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites US EPA, 2015
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“Our estimated maximum concentration of PFOA (~3 ng/L) is 40 times lower than the maximum reported concentration (120 ng/L; Appleman et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.3. PFASs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Appleman et al., 2014 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Our maximum concentration is higher than those reported in two other studies of raw drinking water from groundwater (2600 ng/L; Buerge et al., 2009) and surface water (4200 ng/L; Scheurer et al., 2010) sources (Table 2) and in a study of treated tap water (1600 ng/L; Spoelstra et al., 2013).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.1. Acesulfame
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buerge et al., 2009 source
- Not checked yetcites Scheurer et al., 2010 source
- Not checked yetcites Spoelstra et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Furthermore, the PFHxS concentration in well W09 (47 ng/L) was higher than the maximum concentrations reported in effluent from 23 US wastewater treatment plants (24 ng/L; Schultz et al., 2006a;Schultz et al., 2006b;Sinclair and Kannan, 2006;Loganathan et al., 2007;Plumlee et al., 2008) and four septic systems (2.5 ng/L; Subedi et al., 2015).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schultz et al., 2006a
- Not checked yetcites Subedi et al., 2015 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedSingle case
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We found that nitrate concentrations of 1 mg/L NO 3 -N, which are tenfold higher than local background and tenfold lower than the US federal drinking water standard, were associated with wastewater impacts from OWCs.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Rests on an assumption: Local background nitrate concentration is tenfold lower than 1 mg/L NO3-N.
In the paper
“We previously found 18 OWCs in public supply wells on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, a region served by a sand and gravel aquifer where 85% of residents rely on onsite wastewater treatment systems (Schaider et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schaider et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Some OWCs can persist during subsurface transport and end up in groundwater (Swartz et al., 2006;Phillips et al., 2015), surface water (Standley et al., 2008;Dougherty et al., 2010) and drinking water (Verstraeten et al., 2005;Schaider et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swartz et al., 2006 source
- Not checked yetcites Phillips et al., 2015 source
- Not checked yetcites Standley et al., 2008 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“Leachate from septic systems is likely to contaminate domestic wells in areas with high septic system density (Bremer and Harter, 2012).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bremer and Harter, 2012
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“septic systems are also sources of organic wastewater compounds (OWCs), such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and organophosphate flame retardants (Hinkle et al., 2005;Swartz et al., 2006;Conn et al., 2010).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hinkle et al., 2005 source
- Not checked yetcites Swartz et al., 2006 source
- Not checked yetcites Conn et al., 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“In a study of 26 domestic wells in Nebraska (Verstraeten et al., 2005), the maximum concentrations for seven of the pharmaceuticals we detected were higher than the maximum concentrations that we measured on Cape Cod by factors of 2.5 (sulfamethoxazole) to 580 (trimethoprim).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.2. Pharmaceuticals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verstraeten et al., 2005 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“The phase-out of nonylphenol ethoxylates from many laundry detergents (McCoy, 2007) may also contribute to the lack of detections in the wells we tested.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.4. Infrequently detected OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites McCoy, 2007 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“In our study of Cape Cod public supply wells (Schaider et al., 2014), we found that the extent of unsewered residential land use within 500 m of public supply wells on Cape Cod was significantly correlated with N detects and Σ[pharma].”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schaider et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“The presence of OWCs in most of the wells we tested suggests that current regulations specifying minimum distances between septic systems and domestic wells (in the US, typically 30 m; Wilcox et al., 2010) are not adequate to protect domestic wells from contamination by septic systems.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilcox et al., 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“Groundwater modeling suggests that in areas with one septic system per 2000-20,000 m 2 (0.5-5 acre lots), at least 40% of domestic wells will pump water that comes in part from septic systems (Bremer and Harter, 2012).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Bremer and Harter, 2012
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“There is considerable uncertainty associated with defining capture zones for domestic wells, especially in the absence of sitespecific hydrogeological data (Cole and Silliman, 1997).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cole and Silliman, 1997
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
In the paper
“Acesulfame has been considered an ideal marker of wastewater due to its relatively high concentrations in domestic wastewater, lack of industrial or agricultural sources, and resistance to biodegradation and sorption (Buerge et al., 2009).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.4. Acesulfame
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buerge et al., 2009 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Even when pathogens from septic systems are adequately treated to prevent waterborne disease, septic systems are also sources of OWCs to domestic wells.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Rests on an assumption: Onsite wastewater treatment systems can discharge OWCs into groundwater.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The results of our domestic well testing on Cape Cod demonstrate that domestic well water quality is affected by OWCs from septic systems and other sources.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Rests on an assumption: Onsite wastewater treatment systems can discharge OWCs into groundwater.
In the paper
“Our finding that OWC presence was correlated with concentrations of NO 3 -and B is useful since it can be difficult to predict which wells are likely to contain OWCs from land use data alone due to uncertainties in determining domestic well capture zones.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilcox et al., 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Septic systems and other onsite wastewater treatment systems are the major source of nitrogen to Cape Cod groundwater and are the likely source for many of the OWCs that we detected in domestic wells.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Rests on an assumption: Onsite wastewater treatment systems can discharge OWCs into groundwater.
In the paper
“While these regulations are designed to protect domestic wells from wastewater pathogens, waterborne disease outbreaks can still occur from drinking water wells contaminated by new septic systems built in compliance with local regulations (Borchardt et al., 2011).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Borchardt et al., 2011 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The median [B] in a study of landfill leachate was 4700 μg/L (Clark and Piskin, 1977), which is ~20 times higher than septic tank effluent (Swartz et al., 2006), whereas the median concentration of total N (NO 3 -+ NH 4 + ) was 82 mg/L (Clark and Piskin, 1977), which is only around twice typical TN concentrations in septic tank effluent (Katz et al., 2010).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Clark and Piskin, 1977
- Not checked yetcites Katz et al., 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the absence of adequate toxicological data and drinking water standards to assess the potential health effects of individual OWCs in drinking water, nitrate and boron can be used to identify drinking water sources likely to contain the highest levels of OWCs.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Rests on an assumption: The OWCs detected in Cape Cod domestic wells are not currently regulated by enforceable drinking water standards.
In the paper
“Furthermore, epidemiological studies suggest that current guideline values do not sufficiently protect children from immunotoxic effects (Grandjean and Budtz-Jørgensen, 2013).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Grandjean and Budtz-Jørgensen, 2013
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Our results suggest that current regulations to protect domestic wells from pathogens in septic system discharges do not prevent OWCs from reaching domestic wells.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Rests on an assumption: Onsite wastewater treatment systems can discharge OWCs into groundwater.

It may state two separate claims as one. 86
The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Probably not a substantial claim. 47

In the paper
“The four wells with non-detectable NO 3 -had ≤13 μg/L B, consistent with background concentrations in Cape Cod groundwater (~10 μg/L B; Schaider et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.1. Inorganic contaminants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schaider et al., 2014 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“We did not detect chlorinated OPFRs, including three that we detected in public wells on Cape Cod (TCEP, TDCPP, TCPP; Schaider et al., 2014), even though they tend to be more resistant to biodegradation than non-halogenated OPFRs (Meyer and Bester, 2004).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.4. Infrequently detected OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schaider et al., 2014 source
- Not checked yetcites Meyer and Bester, 2004
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The maximum sulfamethoxazole concentration in this study matched or exceeded the maximum concentration in five drinking water studies (Zimmerman, 2005;Stackelberg et al., 2007;Focazio et al., 2008;Illinois EPA, 2008;Tabe, 2010), and was within a factor of 3 of the maximum concentration in five other studies (Verstraeten et al., 2005;Benotti et al., 2009;Fram and Belitz, 2011;Erickson et al., 2014;”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.2. Pharmaceuticals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Zimmerman, 2005
- Not checked yetcites Stackelberg et al., 2007 source
- Not checked yetcites Focazio et al., 2008 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Coliform bacteria counts and nitrate and phosphate concentrations were higher in domestic wells closer to septic tanks in Florida (Arnade, 1999)”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Arnade, 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Among 3465 domestic wells tested throughout the US (Focazio et al., 2006), 90% had N0.01 mg/L NO 3 -(compared with 80% in our study), 8% had N 10 mg/L NO 3 -(compared with 5% in our study), and the mean concentration was 3.6 mg/L (compared with 2.9 mg/L in our study).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.1. Inorganic contaminants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Focazio et al., 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a sampling of over 3800 domestic wells in Wisconsin, USA, 47% exceeded at least one health guideline for nitrate, coliform bacteria, fluoride, or metals (Knobeloch et al., 2013)”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Knobeloch et al., 2013
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In Nebraska wells ≤ 15 m from septic systems, concentrations of NH 4 + exceeded those of NO 3 -, indicating reducing conditions.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.1. Inorganic contaminants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verstraeten et al., 2005 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a compilation of domestic well testing throughout the US showed exceedances of drinking water standards in 8.4% of wells for nitrate and 11% of wells for arsenic (Focazio et al., 2006)”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Focazio et al., 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“in a study of 26 shallow wells in Nebraska, USA, the median [NO 3 -] was b 0.05 mg/L and the maximum was 39 mg/L (Verstraeten et al., 2005).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.1. Inorganic contaminants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verstraeten et al., 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“diarrheal disease in children was associated with density of nearby septic systems in Wisconsin (Borchardt et al., 2003).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Borchardt et al., 2003 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Verstraeten et al. (2005) detected 14 pharmaceuticals in domestic wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer in central US”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verstraeten et al., 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Erickson et al. (2014) detected several pharmaceuticals in domestic wells in both glacial and bedrock aquifers.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 1. Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Erickson et al., 2014
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This comparison suggests that the distribution of [NO 3 -] in our study was similar to that of Focazio et al.'s broader nationwide study, although their sampling was not part of a nationally representative sampling design.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.1. Inorganic contaminants
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Focazio et al., 2006 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The range of well depths was similar in both studies (5- 30 m in Nebraska, 3-40 m on Cape Cod).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.2. Pharmaceuticals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verstraeten et al., 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Production of PFOS, PFHxS, and PFOA has declined in the US since the early 2000s following a phase-out of POSF-related chemicals by 3M and subsequent stewardship plans by US EPA, and this has resulted in declines in blood serum concentrations of these three PFASs in Americans (Calafat et al., 2007;Olsen et al., 2008).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.3. PFASs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Calafat et al., 2007 source
- Not checked yetcites Olsen et al., 2008 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although we previously found three endogenous hormones in groundwater-fed ponds on Cape Cod (3-6.5 ng/L; Standley et al., 2008), we did not detect hormones in 20 public wells on Cape Cod (MRLs 0.1-0.5 ng/L; Schaider et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.4. Infrequently detected OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Standley et al., 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Schaider et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“While these two longer chain carboxylates are often less frequently detected than shorter-chain PFASs, maximum concentrations of PFNA (96 ng/L; Post et al., 2013) and PFDA (3.3 ng/L: Quiñones and Snyder, 2009) were much higher in other studies.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.3. PFASs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Post et al., 2013 source
- Not checked yetcites Quiñones and Snyder, 2009
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Sulfamethoxazole and carbamazepine have been among the most frequently detected OWCs in drinking water and groundwater (Barnes et al., 2008;Benotti et al., 2009;Erickson et al., 2014;Schaider et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.2. Pharmaceuticals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Barnes et al., 2008 source
- Not checked yetcites Benotti et al., 2009 source
- Not checked yetcites Erickson et al., 2014
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“By contrast, PFBS is used as a replacement for POSF-related chemicals (e.g., PFOS and PFHxS) and PFHxA is used as a shorter-chain analog of PFOA (Wang et al., 2013).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.3. PFASs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wang et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Phillips et al. (2015) reported 20 μg/L TBEP in groundwater downgradient of a septic system serving an elder care facility where the most likely source was floor wax.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.4. Infrequently detected OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Phillips et al., 2015 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedSingle case
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Aerobic sand filters in onsite wastewater treatment systems were shown to remove N 90% of steroid estrogens (Stanford and Weinberg, 2010) and mass loss of 17βestradiol was observed in a wastewater treatment plant plume on Cape Cod (Barber et al., 2009).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.4. Infrequently detected OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Stanford and Weinberg, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Barber et al., 2009 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several OWCs detected in the Nebraska wells but not in the Cape Cod wells (acetaminophen, caffeine, paraxanthine) are well-removed in septic system leach fields (Wilcox et al., 2009;Katz et al., 2010) and typically only persist in anoxic groundwater (Swartz et al., 2006).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.2. Pharmaceuticals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilcox et al., 2009 source
- Not checked yetcites Katz et al., 2010 source
- Not checked yetcites Swartz et al., 2006 source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It was not detected in 20 public wells on Cape Cod (b5 ng/L, Schaider et al., 2014), in 19 US drinking water sources (b 1 ng/L, Benotti et al., 2009), or in 5 drinking water sources in Illinois (b1 ng/L, Illinois EPA, 2008).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.2. Pharmaceuticals
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Schaider et al., 2014 source
- Not checked yetcites Benotti et al., 2009 source
- Not checked yetcites Illinois EPA, 2008
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“NP, NPEOs, and NPECs were persistent in anoxic groundwater in a plume from a septic system leach pit but were not detected in oxic groundwater within the same plume (Swartz et al., 2006).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.4. Infrequently detected OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Swartz et al., 2006 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a survey of OWCs in 47 US wells suspected to be impacted by septic systems, landfills, animal feedlots, and other contamination sources (Barnes et al., 2008), well depth was negatively correlated with N detects , and the median N detects was more than twice as high in shallow wells (b10 m) compared to deeper wells (N50 m).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.1. Well depth
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Barnes et al., 2008 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Among 29 domestic wells in Minnesota, USA, deeper bedrock wells (33-87 m) tended to have higher concentrations of sulfamethoxazole and carbamazepine than shallower wells (9-34 m) in a glacial sand and gravel aquifer (Erickson et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.1. Well depth
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Erickson et al., 2014
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“In general, shallower wells pull younger groundwater more recently in contact with the atmosphere (Plummer and Friedman, 1999) with shorter flow paths that allow less time for sorption and biodegradation processes.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.1. Well depth
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Plummer and Friedman, 1999
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In some shallow groundwater systems close to septic system discharges where reducing conditions predominate, the majority of TN can be present as NH 4 + (Verstraeten et al., 2005;Swartz et al., 2006).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.3. Nitrogen, boron, and TOC
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verstraeten et al., 2005 source
- Not checked yetcites Swartz et al., 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The Cape Cod aquifer has six groundwater lenses, with their maximum elevations along the midpoint of the peninsula.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Masterson and Walter, 2009
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, capture zones for domestic wells are smaller due to their smaller pumping volumes, and because passive wells such as domestic wells tend not to draw down the water table (Cole and Silliman, 1997), they are expected to extend primarily in an upgradient direction.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cole and Silliman, 1997
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Heterogeneity in hydraulic conductivity can lead to small-scale variations in groundwater velocity and direction of groundwater flow (Cole and Silliman, 1997;Francke et al., 1998).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Cole and Silliman, 1997
- Not checked yetcites Francke et al., 1998
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“While NP and NPEOs have been measured at 10s to 100s of μg/L in septic tanks (Hinkle et al., 2005;Stanford and Weinberg, 2010), some studies have found N90% removal in septic system drainfields (Huntsman et al., 2006).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.2.4. Infrequently detected OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Hinkle et al., 2005 source
- Not checked yetcites Stanford and Weinberg, 2010
- Not checked yetcites Huntsman et al., 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In 26 shallow domestic wells in a sand and gravel aquifer, shallower wells (≤ 8 m) had higher concentrations of pharmaceuticals and were more likely to have reducing conditions (Verstraeten et al., 2005).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.1. Well depth
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Verstraeten et al., 2005 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For wells near the center of each lens, capture zones are likely to be relatively close, since groundwater primarily flows in a vertical direction (Masterson and Walter, 2009), whereas for wells near the edges of each lens, capture zones are likely to more distant, since the groundwater flows in a primarily horizontal direction.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Masterson and Walter, 2009
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In public supply wells, 500-m radius circular zones have been used to relate land use to concentrations of pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds (Johnson and Belitz, 2009).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Johnson and Belitz, 2009
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Among over 3800 domestic wells in Wisconsin, USA, deeper wells tended to have lower [NO 3 -] (Knobeloch et al., 2013).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.1. Well depth
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Knobeloch et al., 2013
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Acesulfame concentrations have previously been correlated with concentrations of: PFASs in Swiss rivers (Müller et al., 2011); three pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, gemfibrozil, naproxen) in a wastewater-impacted river in Canada (Liu et al., 2014); two pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, sulfamethoxazole) in groundwater impacted by septic systems; and two pharmaceuticals (carbamazepine, primidone) and”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.4. Acesulfame
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Müller et al., 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Liu et al., 2014 source
- Not checked yetcites Van Stempvoort et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The method we used to develop capture zones was based on typical groundwater conditions on Cape Cod and accounted for fluctuations in flow paths up to 30° (Kerfoot and Horsley, 1988).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.2. Land use
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Kerfoot and Horsley, 1988
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“PFAS concentrations in landfill leachate range from low ng/L to 100s of ng/L (Eggen et al., 2010;Huset et al., 2011;Clarke et al., 2015).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eggen et al., 2010 source
- Not checked yetcites Huset et al., 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Clarke et al., 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Detailed hydrogeological models that account for small-scale variations in hydraulic conductivity and flow direction can be used to model flow paths for water pumped from domestic wells, but these detailed models often are not available to planners and developers making decisions about siting domestic wells (Wilcox et al., 2010).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilcox et al., 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In addition to domestic wastewater, sources of OWCs into groundwater include landfill leachate, stormwater runoff, and wastewater from commercial and industrial sources (Erickson et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Erickson et al., 2014
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Epidemiological studies have shown associations between septic system density and diarrheal disease in children (Borchardt et al., 2003) and have found septic systems to be a common contributing factor to disease outbreaks associated with untreated groundwater in the”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Borchardt et al., 2003 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Pharmaceuticals, personal care product ingredients, OPFRs, and PFASs have all been found in landfill leachates, with concentrations often varying by several orders of magnitude across locations (Clarke et al., 2015).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Clarke et al., 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Acesulfame was persistent for at least 15 years in a septic system plume, with concentrations of 8000-18,000 ng/L 200 m from the leach field (Robertson et al., 2013).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.4. Acesulfame
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Robertson et al., 2013 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While acesulfame and sucralose have been considered specific markers of wastewater in aquatic systems (Buerge et al., 2009), artificial sweeteners are also common in landfill leachate, with concentrations up to 85 μg/L acesulfame (Roy et al., 2014) and 620 μg/L sucralose (Clarke et al., 2015).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buerge et al., 2009 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“and have found septic systems to be a common contributing factor to disease outbreaks associated with untreated groundwater in the US (Wallender et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wallender et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Acesulfame and another artificial sweetener, sucralose, underwent negligible removal during wastewater treatment and groundwater transport, whereas two other artificial sweeteners, cyclamate and saccharin, showed ≥ 90% removal in wastewater treatment plants (Buerge et al., 2009), in a septic system plume (Robertson et al., 2013), and during riverbank filtration and artificial groundwater recharge”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.4. Acesulfame
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buerge et al., 2009 source
- Not checked yetcites Robertson et al., 2013 source
- Not checked yetcites Scheurer et al., 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Regulations provide minimum well-casing depths and minimum setback distances between wells and septic system tanks and leach fields (in the US, typically 15 m from septic tanks and 30 m from leach fields; Wilcox et al., 2010).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Wilcox et al., 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Combining information about when specific artificial sweeteners were introduced or withdrawn and the years of operation of a landfill can help distinguish multiple sources of OWCs in groundwater and can also be used to age-date landfill plumes (Van Stempvoort et al., 2011;Roy et al., 2014).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Van Stempvoort et al., 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Roy et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The median [B] in a study of landfill leachate was 4700 μg/L (Clark and Piskin, 1977), which is ~20 times higher than septic tank effluent (Swartz et al., 2006), whereas the median concentration of total N (NO 3 -+ NH 4 + ) was 82 mg/L (Clark and Piskin, 1977), which is only around twice typical TN concentrations in septic tank effluent (Katz et al., 2010).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Clark and Piskin, 1977
- Not checked yetcites Swartz et al., 2006 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Among these four artificial sweeteners, acesulfame was detected at the highest concentrations in Swiss groundwater and surface waters (Buerge et al., 2009).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.4. Acesulfame
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buerge et al., 2009 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“These studies show that in general, perfluorocarboxylic acids (e.g., PFOA) are more abundant than perfluorosulfonic acids (e.g., PFOS) and shorter-chain PFASs are more abundant than longer-chain, although individual landfills have different relative abundances.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Eggen et al., 2010 source
- Not checked yetcites Huset et al., 2011 source
- Not checked yetcites Clarke et al., 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Acesulfame is commonly used in beverages, food, and toothpastes (Buerge et al., 2009) and can enter domestic wastewater through excretion and direct product disposal (e.g., pouring out unconsumed beverages).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.4. Acesulfame
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buerge et al., 2009 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“While acesulfame and sucralose have been considered specific markers of wastewater in aquatic systems (Buerge et al., 2009), artificial sweeteners are also common in landfill leachate, with concentrations up to 85 μg/L acesulfame (Roy et al., 2014) and 620 μg/L sucralose (Clarke et al., 2015).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.4. Other sources of OWCs
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Roy et al., 2014 source
- Not checked yetcites Clarke et al., 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“whereas two other artificial sweeteners, cyclamate and saccharin, showed ≥ 90% removal in wastewater treatment plants (Buerge et al., 2009), in a septic system plume (Robertson et al., 2013), and during riverbank filtration and artificial groundwater recharge (Scheurer et al., 2010).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.3.4. Acesulfame
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Buerge et al., 2009 source
- Not checked yetcites Robertson et al., 2013 source
- Not checked yetcites Scheurer et al., 2010 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While little toxicological information is available for other PFASs, there is growing recognition that unidentified PFAS precursors in contaminated groundwater can undergo transformation to form PFOS and PFOA (Houtz et al., 2013).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Houtz et al., 2013 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“However, these guidelines were developed for short-term exposures; the state of New Jersey has set a PFOA guideline for drinking water that is ten times lower (Post et al., 2009).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites Post et al., 2009 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, few guidelines for pharmaceuticals have been developed on the basis of toxicity studies, and toxicity assessment for pharmaceuticals may not include rigorous assessment of developmental toxicity, neuro-or immunotoxicity, endocrine toxicity, and carcinogenicity (ICH, 2013).”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites ICH, 2013
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since nitrate is a commonly measured drinking water contaminant, it is a useful screening tool for OWCs in domestic wells and target nitrate levels can be established to prioritize wells for additional water quality testing and enhanced source water protection.”
§ Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer > 3.5. Implications
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Local background nitrate concentration is tenfold lower than 1 mg/L NO3-N.

114 of 114

The paper relies on this without support.
Eighty-five percent of Cape Cod residents are served by onsite wastewater treatment systems and 20% rely on domestic drinking water wells.
“Eighty-five percent of Cape Cod residents are served by onsite wastewater treatment systems and 20% rely on domestic drinking water wells.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Incomplete degradation or sorption during treatment in septic tanks and leach fields, as well as leaks of poorly treated sewage from aging and failing systems, allow some organic wastewater compounds to percolate through vadose zone soils and enter groundwater.
“Incomplete degradation or sorption during treatment in septic tanks and leach fields, as well as leaks of poorly treated sewage from aging and failing systems, allow some OWCs to percolate through vadose zone soils and enter groundwater.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Septic systems may be a source of PFASs in groundwater because household wastewater can contain PFASs that have leached from food packaging, cookware, upholstery, apparel, and other household products.
“Septic systems may be a source of PFASs in groundwater because household wastewater can contain PFASs that have leached from food packaging, cookware, upholstery, apparel, and other household products.”
The paper relies on this without support.
N detects may include organic wastewater compounds that originate from multiple pollution sources, whereas pharmaceuticals likely originate primarily from household wastewater.
“N detects may include OWCs that originate from multiple pollution sources, whereas pharmaceuticals likely originate primarily from household wastewater.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Domestic wells are often shallower than large volume public supply wells and thus more vulnerable to contaminants, which often exceed drinking water standards.
“They are often shallower than large volume public supply wells and thus more vulnerable to contaminants, which often exceed drinking water standards.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Domestic wells are commonly used in communities that are served by onsite wastewater treatment systems (e.g., septic systems, cesspools), which can be sources of pathogens and chemical contaminants to groundwater.
“Domestic wells are commonly used in communities that are served by onsite wastewater treatment systems (e.g., septic systems, cesspools), which can be sources of pathogens and chemical contaminants to groundwater.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Septic systems and other onsite wastewater treatment systems are the major source of nitrogen to Cape Cod groundwater.
“Septic systems and other onsite wastewater treatment systems are the major source of nitrogen to Cape Cod groundwater and are the likely source for many of the OWCs that we detected in domestic wells.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Onsite wastewater treatment systems can discharge OWCs into groundwater.
“All of the sampled wells are located in areas served exclusively by onsite wastewater treatment systems; these systems can discharge OWCs into groundwater.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The OWCs detected in Cape Cod domestic wells are not currently regulated by enforceable drinking water standards.
“The OWCs we detected in Cape Cod domestic wells are not currently regulated by enforceable drinking water standards and health-based guideline values are only available for 10 of the 27 OWCs we detected.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Local background nitrate concentration is tenfold lower than 1 mg/L NO3-N.
“We found that nitrate concentrations of 1 mg/L NO 3 -N, which are tenfold higher than local background and tenfold lower than the US federal drinking water standard, were associated with wastewater impacts from OWCs.”

10 of 10

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

Conflicting claims about the main source of boron
Minor
One passage identifies septic systems as the main source indicated by the highest-boron wells; another concludes that saltwater was the primary major source of boron in the wells tested. These are conflicting source attributions for the study's boron findings.
Mean nitrate exceeds mean total nitrogen
Minor
The table reports mean nitrate-N of 2.9 mg/L and mean total nitrogen of 2.8 mg/L, even though the text says nitrate accounted for only 75-96% of total nitrogen in the samples. Nitrate-N cannot exceed total nitrogen when averaged over the same wells.
Two different maximum PFHxS concentrations
Minor
The text and Table 2 give the maximum PFHxS concentration as 41 ng/L, but the later discussion assigns 47 ng/L to well W09.

3 of 3

Pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds in U.S. drinking water
Benotti, M. J., Trenholm, R. A., Vanderford, B. J., Holady, J. C., Stanford, B. D., & Snyder, S. A. (2009) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es801845a · Cited by 1,681
State-of-the-science of endocrine disrupting chemicals, 2012
Bergman, Å., Heindel, J., Jobling, S., Kidd, K., & Zoeller, R. T. (2012) · Toxicology Letters · doi:10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.03.020 · Cited by 1,388
Polyfluoroalkyl Chemicals in the U.S. Population: Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) 2003-2004 and Comparisons with NHANES 1999–2000
Calafat, A. M., Wong, L.-Y., Kuklenyik, Z., Reidy, J. A., & Needham, L. L. (2007) · Environmental Health Perspectives · doi:10.1289/ehp.10598 · Cited by 1,247
Fluorinated alternatives to long-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), perfluoroalkane sulfonic acids (PFSAs) and their potential precursors
Wang, Z., Cousins, I. T., Scheringer, M., & Hungerbühler, K. (2013) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2013.08.021 · Cited by 924
Persistence of Perfluoroalkyl Acid Precursors in AFFF-Impacted Groundwater and Soil
Houtz, E. F., Higgins, C. P., Field, J. A., & Sedlak, D. L. (2013) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es4018877 · Cited by 849
A national reconnaissance for pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States — II) untreated drinking water sources
Focazio, M. J., Kolpin, D. W., Barnes, K. K., Furlong, E. T., Meyer, M. T., Zaugg, S. D., Barber, L. B., & Thurman, M. E. (2008) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.02.021 · Cited by 843
Efficiency of conventional drinking-water-treatment processes in removal of pharmaceuticals and other organic compounds
Stackelberg, P. E., Gibs, J., Furlong, E. T., Meyer, M. T., Zaugg, S. D., & Lippincott, R. L. (2007) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.01.095 · Cited by 749
A national reconnaissance of pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States—I) Groundwater
Barnes, K. K., Kolpin, D. W., Furlong, E. T., Zaugg, S. D., Meyer, M. T., & Barber, L. B. (2008) · Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.04.028 · Cited by 741
Treatment of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances in U.S. full-scale water treatment systems
Appleman, T. D., Higgins, C. P., Quiñones, O., Vanderford, B. J., Kolstad, C., Zeigler-Holady, J. C., & Dickenson, E. R. V. (2014) · Water Research · doi:10.1016/j.watres.2013.10.067 · Cited by 585
Mass Loading and Fate of Perfluoroalkyl Surfactants in Wastewater Treatment Plants
Sinclair, E., & Kannan, K. (2006) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/es051798v · Cited by 547

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Show all 81 references

6 of the 81 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

Fluorinated Compounds in U.S. Fast Food Packaging
Schaider, L. A., Balan, S. A., Blum, A., Andrews, D. Q., Strynar, M. J., Dickinson, M. E., Lunderberg, D. M., Lang, J. R., & Peaslee, G. F. (2017) · Environmental Science & Technology Letters · doi:10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00435 · Cited by 620
Self-citation
A review of the occurrence of pharmaceuticals and personal care products in Indian water bodies
Balakrishna, K., Rath, A., Praveenkumarreddy, Y., Guruge, K. S., & Subedi, B. (2016) · Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety · doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.11.014 · Cited by 556
Hormones and Pharmaceuticals in Groundwater Used As a Source of Drinking Water Across the United States
Bexfield, L. M., Toccalino, P. L., Belitz, K., Foreman, W. T., & Furlong, E. T. (2019) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.8b05592 · Cited by 301
Municipal Solid Waste Landfills: An Underestimated Source of Pharmaceutical and Personal Care Products in the Water Environment
Yu, X., Sui, Q., Lyu, S., Zhao, W., Liu, J., Cai, Z., Yu, G., & Barceló, ‪. (2020) · Environmental Science & Technology · doi:10.1021/acs.est.0c00565 · Cited by 272
Pharmaceuticals Market, Consumption Trends and Disease Incidence Are Not Driving the Pharmaceutical Research on Water and Wastewater
Peña, O. I. G., Zavala, M. Á. L., & Ruelas, H. C. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18052532 · Cited by 290

See all 183

Authors: Schaider, L. A., Ackerman, J. M., & Rudel, R. A.
Affiliations: Silent Spring Institute (US)
Corresponding author: Schaider, Laurel A.
ORCID: Schaider, Laurel A.
Ackerman, Janet M.
Rudel, Ruthann A.
Venue: Science of The Total Environment
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2016-03
Volume: 547
Pages: 470-481
ISSN: 0048-9697 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.12.081
OpenAlex: W2287549042
Semantic Scholar: 53364dcc6e3718afda3b30231466b97793b50da2
Cited by: 182
References: 81
Citations by year: 2026: 16 · 2025: 24 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 13 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 6
FWCI: 10.72
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: cc-by-nc-nd
www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ (vor)
Locations: The Science of The Total Environment (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Massachusetts Environmental Trust
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (1H75EH000732-01)
Cape Cod Foundation
Topics: Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Pollution › Pharmaceutical and Antibiotic Environmental Impacts
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Water Science and Technology › Fecal contamination and water quality
Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Waste Management and Disposal › Wastewater Treatment and Reuse
Keywords: septic systems, groundwater contamination, pharmaceuticals, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, organophosphate flame retardants, acesulfame, nitrate, boron, on-site wastewater treatment, sand and gravel aquifers, Cape Cod, landfill leachate, drinking water regulation
MeSH terms: Environmental Monitoring, Massachusetts, Organic Chemicals, Waste Disposal, Fluid, Groundwater, Drinking Water, Water Wells, Wastewater

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Septic systems as sources of organic wastewater compounds in domestic drinking water wells in a shallow sand and gravel aquifer

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