Epidemiology of insomnia: Prevalence, self-help treatments, consultations, and determinants of help-seeking behaviors
Abstract
Background and purpose To estimate the prevalence of insomnia symptoms and syndrome in the general population, describe the types of self-help treatments and consultations initiated for insomnia, and examine help-seeking determinants. Patients and methods A randomly selected sample of 2001 French-speaking adults from the province of Quebec (Canada) responded to a telephone survey about sleep, insomnia, and its treatments. Results Of the total sample, 25.3% were dissatisfied with their sleep, 29.9% reported insomnia symptoms, and 9.5% met criteria for an insomnia syndrome. Thirteen percent of the respondents had consulted a healthcare provider specifically for insomnia in their lifetime, with general practitioners being the most frequently consulted. Daytime fatigue (48%), psychological distress (40%), and physical discomfort (22%) were the main determinants prompting individuals with insomnia to seek treatment. Of the total sample, 15% had used at least once herbal/dietary products to facilitate sleep and 11% had used prescribed sleep medications in the year preceding the survey. Other self-help strategies employed to facilitate sleep included reading, listening to music, and relaxation. Conclusions These findings confirm the high prevalence of insomnia in the general population. While few insomnia sufferers seek professional consultations, many individuals initiate self-help treatments, particularly when daytime impairments such as fatigue become more noticeable. Improved kn…
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The course of insomnia is often chronic, with studies showing persistence in 50% to 85% of individuals over follow-up intervals of one to several years.
“The course of insomnia is of -ten chronic, with studies showing persistence in 50% to 85% of individuals over follow-up intervals of one to several years. 14”
From Clinical Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Insomnia in Adults (2008) · cites this paper as [14]
Cites
Epidemiology of insomnia: what we know and what we still need to learn
Ohayon, M. M. (2002) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1053/smrv.2002.0186 · Cited by 3,743 · cited 2× · see citing works
“duration criteria, may yield a more precise prevalence rate of insomnia syndrome [1,19,20].”
BackgroundInsomnia and Its Treatment: Prevalence and Correlates
Mellinger, G. D. (1985) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790260019002 · Cited by 1,071 · see citing works
Edinger, J. D., Bonnet, M. H., Bootzin, R. R., Doghramji, K., Dorsey, C. M., Espie, C. A., Jamieson, A. O., McCall, W. V., Morin, C. M., & Stepanski, E. J. (2004) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/27.8.1567 · Cited by 1,039 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The extensive variability of prevalence rates underscores the need to use a standardized definition and methodology when conducting epidemiological studies of insomnia [8,9].”
BackgroundSelf-citationOhayon, M. M. (1997) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3956(97)00002-2 · Cited by 423 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Morin, C. M., Belleville, G., Bélanger, L., & Ivers, H. (2011) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/34.5.601 · Cited by 4,620 · see citing works
Self-citationClinical Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Insomnia in Adults
Schutte-Rodin, S., Broch, L., Buysse, D., Dorsey, C., & Sateia, M. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.27286 · Cited by 1,943 · see citing works
Mollayeva, T., Thurairajah, P., Burton, K., Mollayeva, S., Shapiro, C. M., & Colantonio, A. (2016) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2015.01.009 · Cited by 1,847 · see citing works
The association of sleep and pain: an update and a path forward
Finan, P. H., Goodin, B. R., & Smith, M. T. (2013) · The Journal of Pain · doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2013.08.007 · Cited by 1,620 · see citing works
The effects of physical activity on sleep: A meta-analytic review
Kredlow, M. A., Capozzoli, M. C., Hearon, B. A., Calkins, A. W., & Otto, M. W. (2015) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-015-9617-6 · Cited by 1,333 · see citing works
Why Sleep Is Important for Health: A Psychoneuroimmunology Perspective
Irwin, M. R. (2015) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115205 · Cited by 1,325 · see citing works
“…about 25% of the population of the United States report insomnia complaints (LeBlanc et al. 2009), and nearly 10% fulfill diagnostic criteria for chronic insomnia (Morin et al. 2006b; Ohayon 1996, 2002), which is persistent for as long as three years in nearly 50% of patients (Morin et al. 2009).”
BackgroundCognitive Behavioral Therapy for Chronic Insomnia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Trauer, J. M., Qian, M. Y., Doyle, J. S., Rajaratnam, S. M. W., & Cunnington, D. (2015) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/m14-2841 · Cited by 1,053 · see citing works
Morin, C. M., & Benca, R. (2012) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(11)60750-2 · Cited by 976 · see citing works
Self-citationMorin, C. M., & Jarrin, D. C. (2022) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2022.03.003 · Cited by 907 · see citing works
Self-citationInsomnia with objective short sleep duration: The most biologically severe phenotype of the disorder
Vgontzas, A. N., Fernandez-Mendoza, J., Liao, D., & Bixler, E. O. (2013) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2012.09.005 · Cited by 776 · see citing works
Cognitive and behavioral therapies in the treatment of insomnia: A meta-analysis
van Straten, A., van der Zweerde, T., Kleiboer, A., Cuijpers, P., Morin, C. M., & Lancee, J. (2018) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2017.02.001 · Cited by 676 · see citing works
Self-citationWilson, S., Nutt, D., Alford, C., Argyropoulos, S., Baldwin, D., Bateson, A., Britton, T., Crowe, C., Dijk, D.-J., Espie, C., et al. (2010) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881110379307 · Cited by 634 · see citing works
Kalmbach, D. A., Anderson, J. R., & Drake, C. L. (2018) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.12710 · Cited by 620 · see citing works
The Sleep Condition Indicator: a clinical screening tool to evaluate insomnia disorder
Espie, C. A., Kyle, S. D., Hames, P., Gardani, M., Fleming, L., & Cape, J. (2014) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-004183 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Insomnia and health-related quality of life
Kyle, S. D., Morgan, K., & Espie, C. A. (2010) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2009.07.004 · Cited by 520 · see citing works
Espie, C. A., Emsley, R., Kyle, S. D., Gordon, C., Drake, C. L., Siriwardena, A. N., Cape, J., Ong, J. C., Sheaves, B., Foster, R., et al. (2019) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2018.2745 · Cited by 466 · see citing works
The Natural History of Insomnia: A Population-Based 3-Year Longitudinal Study
Morin, C. M., Bélanger, L., LeBlanc, M., Ivers, H., Savard, J., Espie, C. A., Mérette, C., Baillargeon, L., & Grégoire, J.-P. (2009) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinternmed.2008.610 · Cited by 498 · see citing works
Incidence and Risk Factors of Insomnia in a Population-Based Sample
LeBlanc, M., Mérette, C., Savard, J., Ivers, H., Baillargeon, L., & Morin, C. M. (2009) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/32.8.1027 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Self-citationEspie, C. A. (2009) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/32.12.1549 · Cited by 422 · see citing works
van der Zweerde, T., Bisdounis, L., Kyle, S. D., Lancee, J., & van Straten, A. (2019) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2019.08.002 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy in Persons with Comorbid Insomnia: A Meta-Analysis
Geiger-Brown, J. M., Rogers, V. E., Liu, W., Ludeman, E. M., Downton, K. D., & Diaz-Abad, M. (2015) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2014.11.007 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Wilson, S., Anderson, K., Baldwin, D., Dijk, D.-J., Espie, A., Espie, C., Gringras, P., Krystal, A., Nutt, D., Selsick, H., et al. (2019) · Journal of Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1177/0269881119855343 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
Validation of the Insomnia Severity Index in Primary Care
Gagnon, C., Belanger, L., Ivers, H., & Morin, C. M. (2013) · The Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine · doi:10.3122/jabfm.2013.06.130064 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Self-citationSleep hygiene education as a treatment of insomnia: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Chung, K.-F., Lee, C.-T., Yeung, W.-F., Chan, M.-S., Chung, E. W.-Y., & Lin, W.-L. (2018) · Family Practice · doi:10.1093/fampra/cmx122 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Ritterband, L. M., Bailey, E. T., Thorndike, F. P., Lord, H. R., Farrell‐Carnahan, L., & Baum, L. D. (2012) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.1969 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Gross, C. R., Kreitzer, M. J., Reilly-Spong, M., Wall, M., Winbush, N. Y., Patterson, R., Mahowald, M., & Cramer-Bornemann, M. (2011) · EXPLORE · doi:10.1016/j.explore.2010.12.003 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Computerised Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Insomnia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Cheng, S. K., & Dizon, J. (2012) · Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics · doi:10.1159/000335379 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
van Mill, J. G., Hoogendijk, W. J. G., Vogelzangs, N., van Dyck, R., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2010) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.09m05218gry · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Meta-analytic review of the impact of cognitive-behavior therapy for insomnia on concomitant anxiety
Belleville, G., Cousineau, H., Levrier, K., & St-Pierre-Delorme, M.-È. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.02.004 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
Logging on for Better Sleep: RCT of the Effectiveness of Online Treatment for Insomnia
Vincent, N., & Lewycky, S. (2009) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/32.6.807 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Fletcher, B. S., Paul, S. M., Dodd, M. J., Schumacher, K., West, C., Cooper, B., Lee, K., Aouizerat, B., Swift, P., Wara, W., et al. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Oncology · doi:10.1200/jco.2007.12.2838 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
The evidence base of sleep restriction therapy for treating insomnia disorder
Miller, C. B., Espie, C. A., Epstein, D. R., Friedman, L., Morin, C. M., Pigeon, W. R., Spielman, A. J., & Kyle, S. D. (2014) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2014.01.006 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Self-citationSelf-help therapy for insomnia: a meta-analysis
van Straten, A., & Cuijpers, P. (2009) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2008.04.006 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Freeman, D., Pugh, K., Vorontsova, N., & Southgate, L. (2009) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2008.12.001 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Relations between sleep, fatigue, and health-related quality of life in individuals with insomnia
Fortier-Brochu, É., Beaulieu-Bonneau, S., Ivers, H., & Morin, C. M. (2010) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2010.05.005 · Cited by 144 · see citing works
Self-citationSweetman, A., Lack, L., Catcheside, P. G., Antic, N. A., Smith, S., Chai-Coetzer, C. L., Douglas, J., O’grady, A., Dunn, N., Robinson, J., et al. (2019) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsz178 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Benz, F., Knoop, T., Ballesio, A., Bacaro, V., Johann, A. F., Rücker, G., Feige, B., Riemann, D., & Baglioni, C. (2020) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101873 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Vgontzas, A. N., Fernandez-Mendoza, J., Miksiewicz, T., Kritikou, I., Shaffer, M. L., Liao, D., Basta, M., & Bixler, E. O. (2014) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2013.172 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Lancee, J., van den Bout, J., van Straten, A., & Spoormaker, V. I. (2012) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2011.09.012 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Fernandez-Mendoza, J., Vgontzas, A. N., Bixler, E. O., Singareddy, R., Shaffer, M. L., Calhoun, S. L., Karataraki, M., Vela-Bueno, A., & Liao, D. (2012) · SLEEP · doi:10.5665/sleep.1832 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Sleep disturbance, personality and the onset of depression and anxiety: Prospective cohort study
Batterham, P. J., Glozier, N., & Christensen, H. (2012) · Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/0004867412457997 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Uhlig, B. L., Sand, T., Ødegård, S. S., & Hagen, K. (2014) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2014.01.018 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Belleville, G. (2010) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674371005500904 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Freeman, D., Brugha, T., Meltzer, H., Jenkins, R., Stahl, D., & Bebbington, P. (2010) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2010.03.018 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Regulation of neuron-astrocyte metabolic coupling across the sleep-wake cycle
Petit, J.-M., & Magistretti, P. J. (2016) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.12.007 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Hiller, R. M., Johnston, A., Dohnt, H., Lovato, N., & Gradisar, M. (2015) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2014.11.006 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Insomnia and Telomere Length in Older Adults
Carroll, J. E., Esquivel, S., Goldberg, A., Seeman, T. E., Effros, R. B., Dock, J., Olmstead, R., Breen, E. C., & Irwin, M. R. (2016) · Sleep · doi:10.5665/sleep.5526 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Zakiei, A., Khazaie, H., Rostampour, M., Lemola, S., Esmaeili, M., Dürsteler, K., Brühl, A., Sadeghi-Bahmani, D., & Brand, S. (2021) · Life · doi:10.3390/life11020133 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Sirdifield, C., Chipchase, S. Y., Owen, S., & Siriwardena, A. N. (2017) · The Patient - Patient-Centered Outcomes Research · doi:10.1007/s40271-016-0182-z · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Strand, L. B., Laugsand, L. E., Wisløff, U., Nes, B. M., Vatten, L., & Janszky, I. (2013) · SLEEP · doi:10.5665/sleep.2310 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Huberty, J. L., Green, J., Puzia, M. E., Larkey, L., Laird, B., Vranceanu, A.-M., Vlisides-Henry, R., & Irwin, M. R. (2021) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0244717 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Factors related to sleep disorders among male firefighters
Lim, D.-K., Baek, K.-O., Chung, I.-S., & Lee, M.-Y. (2014) · Annals of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1186/2052-4374-26-11 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
How does music aid sleep? literature review
Dickson, G. T., & Schubert, E. (2019) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2019.05.016 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Insomnia Patients' Help-Seeking Experiences
Cheung, J. M. Y., Bartlett, D. J., Armour, C. L., Glozier, N., & Saini, B. (2014) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1080/15402002.2013.764529 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Evaluation of sleep apnea in a sample of black patients
Jean-Louis, G., von Gizycki, H., Zizi, F., Dharawat, A., Lazar, J. M., & Brown, C. D. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.27276 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Neuroscience-driven discovery and development of sleep therapeutics
Dresler, M., Spoormaker, V. I., Beitinger, P., Czisch, M., Kimura, M., Steiger, A., & Holsboer, F. (2014) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.10.012 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Cho, H. J., Eisenberger, N. I., Olmstead, R., Breen, E. C., & Irwin, M. R. (2016) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/tp.2016.23 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Sweetman, A., McEvoy, R. D., Smith, S., Catcheside, P. G., Antic, N. A., Chai-Coetzer, C. L., Douglas, J., O’Grady, A., Dunn, N., Robinson, J., et al. (2020) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsaa002 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Watson, N. F., Benca, R. M., Krystal, A. D., McCall, W. V., & Neubauer, D. N. (2023) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm12072493 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Kalmbach, D. A., Cheng, P., Arnedt, J. T., Cuamatzi-Castelan, A., Atkinson, R. L., Fellman-Couture, C., Roehrs, T., & Drake, C. L. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine · doi:10.5664/jcsm.7882 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Acute and Chronic Insomnia: What Has Time and/or Hyperarousal Got to Do with It?
Vargas, I., Nguyen, A. M., Muench, A., Bastien, C. H., Ellis, J. G., & Perlis, M. L. (2020) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci10020071 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Lappalainen, P., Langrial, S., Oinas-Kukkonen, H., Muotka, J., & Lappalainen, R. (2019) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2019.04.001 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Prevalence and predictors of insomnia in women with invasive ovarian cancer: anxiety a major factor
Price, M. A., Zachariae, R., Butow, P. N., deFazio, A., Chauhan, D., Espie, C. A., Friedlander, M., & Webb, P. M. (2009) · European Journal of Cancer · doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2009.05.030 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Noble, J. M., Zamani, A., Gharaat, M., Merrick, D., Maeda, N., Lambe Foster, A., Nikolaidis, I., Goud, R., Stroulia, E., Agyapong, V. I. O., et al. (2022) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/33717 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Sleep quality and treatment of social anxiety disorder
Horenstein, A., Morrison, A. S., Goldin, P., ten Brink, M., Gross, J. J., & Heimberg, R. G. (2019) · Anxiety, Stress, & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2019.1617854 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“Sleep dysfunction is a widespread problem, with about 30% of the general population reporting at least some symptoms of insomnia and sleep-related disturbances (Ancoli-Israel & Roth, 1999; Morin, LeBlanc, Daley, Gregoire, & Merette, 2006).”
Espie, C. A., Luik, A. I., Cape, J., Drake, C. L., Siriwardena, A. N., Ong, J. C., Gordon, C., Bostock, S., Hames, P., Nisbet, M., et al. (2016) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-016-1364-7 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
External Auditory Stimulation as a Non-Pharmacological Sleep Aid
Yoon, H., & Baek, H. J. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22031264 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Low, T., Conduit, R., Varma, P., Meaklim, H., & Jackson, M. L. (2020) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2020.100335 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Vincent, N., Walsh, K., & Lewycky, S. (2013) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1080/15402002.2012.700662 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Meta-narrative review: the impact of music therapy on sleep and future research directions
Gou, Q., Li, M., Wang, X., Yuan, X., Yang, M., Li, J., Wang, B., Yang, D., Ren, X., Yang, M., et al. (2025) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2024.1433592 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Evaluation of the Insomnia Patient
Arnedt, J. T., Conroy, D. A., Posner, D. A., & Aloia, M. S. (2006) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2006.06.002 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Lauzeille, D., Guerlais, M., Sallenave‐Namont, C., Etcheverrigaray, F., Broccato, L., Poisblaud, Q., Jolliet, P., & Victorri‐Vigneau, C. (2019) · Fundamental & Clinical Pharmacology · doi:10.1111/fcp.12420 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
- Authors
- MORIN, C., LEBLANC, M., DALEY, M., GREGOIRE, J., & MERETTE, C.
- Affiliations
- Hôpital du Saint-Sacrement (CA)
- Université Laval (CA)
- Corresponding author
- MORIN, C
- ORCID
- MORIN, C
- Venue
- Sleep Medicine
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2006-03
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 123-130
- ISSN
- 1389-9457 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2030710544
- Cited by
- 1,191
- References
- 4
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 56 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 83 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 86 · 2020: 79 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 58 · 2017: 81 · 2016: 62 · 2015: 58 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 48
- FWCI
- 32.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Sleep Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Obstructive Sleep Apnea Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Keywords
- insomnia, insomnia prevalence, help-seeking, self-help treatment, daytime fatigue, psychological distress, sleep medication, general practitioners
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Demography, Female, Humans, Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders, Male, Middle Aged, Patient Acceptance of Health Care, Referral and Consultation, Self-Help Groups, Prevalence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
