The DOI matches its Crossref record; 100 of the 100 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Defining empirically supported therapies.
Abstract
A scheme is proposed for determining when a psychological treatment for a specific problem or disorder may be considered to be established in efficacy or to be possibly efficacious.The importance of independent replication before a treatment is established in efficacy is emphasized, and a number of factors are elaborated that should be weighed in evaluating whether studies supporting a treatment's efficacy are sound.It is suggested that, in evaluating the benefits of a given treatment, the greatest weight should be given to efficacy trials but that these trials should be followed by research on effectiveness in clinical settings and with various populations and by cost-effectiveness research.In this special section, the authors of review articles have been asked to evaluate the psychological treatment research literature in their area of expertise to identify empirically supported treatments' (ESTs).Briefly, we define ESTs as clearly specified psychological treatments shown to be efficacious in controlled research with a delineated population.Thus, following Kiesler (1966), we suggest that practitioners and researchers will profit from knowing which treatments are effective for which clients or patients.That psychological treatments (undefined) benefit the majority of clients or patients (undefined) is already well established (see, e.g., M. L. Smith & Glass, 1977).Furthermore, our particular emphasis is on the effects of the treatments as independent variables.This is not to deny the importance of other factors such as the therapeutic alliance, as well as client and patient variables that affect the process and outcome of psychological therapies (see, e.g.,
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“The efficacy of this treatment is supported by The Task Force Report on Empirically Supported Treatments (ESTs; Chambless & Hollon, 1998) and the 12th Division of the APA.”
From Enhancing In Vivo Exposure in the Treatment of Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia Using Location-Based Technologies: A Case Study (2020) · cites this paper as Chambless & Hollon, 1998
In the citing paper
“Furthermore, the American Psychological Association has recognized ACT as an evidence-based therapy to promote psychological (eg, depressive symptoms) and physical (eg, chronic pain) health.29”
From Acceptance and Commitment Therapy Among Informal Caregivers of People With Chronic Health Conditions: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (2023) · cites this paper as [29]
In the citing paper
“Following MBCT training, participants exhibit improved self-reported mindfulness (43–50), reduced rumination (43, 45–48, 51–53) and worry (43, 47, 53), improved meta-awareness (52, 54, 55), increased self-compassion (56, 57), and reduced emotional reactivity (58).”
From Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Psychiatry (2018) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Research has largely supported this notion, and shown that these processes are central components and active ingredients of MBCT.”
From Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Psychiatry (2018) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Four recent meta-analyses have addressed the long-term outcome of CBT for anxiety-related disorders, and they generally indicate a medium symptomreductionupto2yearsfollowing treatment completion.”
From Long-term Outcomes of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety-Related Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
In the citing paper
“Strengths of this meta-analysis are the inclusion of more comparison groups, which yielded more studies than previous meta-analyses, 18-21”
From Long-term Outcomes of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy for Anxiety-Related Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis (2020) · cites this paper as [19]
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“Randomized clinical trials are needed to clarify whether observed effects are due to mindfulness training or to confounding factors such as placebo effects or passage of time (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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“…practices, it is appropriate for any research method to define objective criteria that local, state or federal decision makers may use to determine if a practice is evidence based (Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Chambless & Ollendick, 2001; Odom & Strain, 2002; Shernoff, Kratochwill, & Stoiber, 2002).”
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“Thus, we chose a waitlist control design, which can assess treatment efficacy while controlling for self-selection, history, maturation, regression to the mean, and the effects of repeated testing (Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Kazdin, 2003).”
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“Therefore, these studies begin to fulfill the criterion that the intervention be replicated by independent research groups to be considered empirically supported (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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“an intervention practice as efficacious or ‘‘probably efficacious,’’ which provided a precedent for quantifying the amount and type of evidence needed for establishing psychosocial intervention practices as evidence-based (Chambless and Hollon 1998; Chambless et al. 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSeibert, S. E., Wang, G., & Courtright, S. H. (2011) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0022676 · Cited by 1,666
“The cutoff value of the minimum number of primary studies to be included in each meta-analysis was set to three (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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“We include treatments categorized as both well-established and probably efficacious; we also list treatments identified as possibly efficacious (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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“ESTs refer to psychological interventions that have been evaluated scientifically (e.g., a randomized controlled trial, RCT) and satisfy the criteria outlined in Chambless and Hollon (1998).”
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“(2002); and Cohen et al. (2006) (Eikeseth’s and Cohen’s studies also involved comparison with alternative treatments)—this treatment meets both Chambless et al.”
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“…recent movement toward ESTs. ESTs are lists of treatments that have been found in controlled trials or systematic single-case designs to be efficacious for specific disorders, such as major depressive disorder, panic disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and bulimia (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
Kasari, C., Freeman, S., & Paparella, T. (2006) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01567.x · Cited by 951
“When tested against each other, rival interventions provide important information about the specificity of an intervention (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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“…quality of the treatment implementation using three criteria which were based on an authoritative review of empirically supported psychotherapies (Chambless & Hollon, 1998) : (1) the study referred to the use of a treatment manual (either a published manual, or a manual specifically designed for…”
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“Less than half of those receive “empirically validated” interventions (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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“These criteria were based on an authoritative review of empirically supported psychotherapies [24] and on the criteria proposed by the Cochrane Collaboration to assess the methodological validity of the study [25]:”
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“Subsequently, tested-andeffective treatment procedures have been incorporated into treatment manuals and other media to facilitate consistency in treatment delivery (Chambless & Hollon 1998).”
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“Chambless and Hollon (1998) have identified several criteria for discerning whether treatments should be considered efficacious (i.e., established) or possibly efficacious (i.e., promising but in need of replication.).”
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“According to the current guidelines for evidence-based practice in psychology, which are limited in a number of ways by not including criteria for length of follow-up or study sample size (American Psychological Association, 1995; Chambless & Hollon, 1998 ), we tentatively conclude that PCIT meets the criteria for a “…”
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“When applying more formal criteria (Chambless et al., 1998; Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Chambless et al., 1996), Rogers and Vismara found that EIBI (or what they call the ‘‘Lovaas treatment approach’’) should be considered ‘‘well established’’ and that no other intervention presently qualifies for…”
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“Although advances in the methods for organizing and interpreting the literature have seen great improvements (e.g., Chambless & Hollon, 1998 ), the use of interventions supported by research may be less common than the evidence warrants, given the many obstacles such interventions face in clinical settings (e.g., Addi…”
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“The treatments in each of these 21 studies also are classified using criteria from Chambless et al. (1996), and Chambless and Hollon (1998).”
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“However, of these two studies, Thienemann et al. (2006) was an open trial and thus the classification of possibly efficacious seemed appropriate for Parent GCBT (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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“Chambless and Hollon (1998) propose a scheme for determining when a treatment may be considered to demonstrate efficacy for a delineated population.”
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“…on Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures and the APA Task Force for Psychological Intervention Guidelines (DIV12; presented in Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Chambless & Ollendick, 2001), adopted and expanded by APA Division 53, the Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent…”
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“Using the criteria for manualized treatments established by Chambless and Hollon (1998), the current literature quickly reveals that DBT is the only treatment for borderline personality disorder (BPD) considered “well-established” or “efficacious and specific.”
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“Yet advocates of specific treatments find such evidence compelling and some even suggest that the failure to use specific treatments for specific disorders, based on such empirical support, makes dissemination and application an ethical responsibility (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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Family-strengthening approaches for the prevention of youth problem behaviors.
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“Researchers are beginning to accept the Chambless and Hollon (1998) criteria (based on the American Psychological Association Task Force on Psychological Intervention Guidelines, 1995) as the standard for defining empirically supported therapies, namely at least two randomized control trials by two…”
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“The importance of an intervention being carefully described so that others could potentially replicate it, is a critical feature of an empirically supported intervention (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
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“, pill or psychological placebo, TAU, other psychotherapies, pharmacotherapy), meeting the stringent criteria of an empirically supported treatment (5).”
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Huey, S. J., & Polo, A. J. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410701820174 · Cited by 570
“The first two labels are from Chambless et al. (1998) and Chambless et al. (1996) and the third is from Chambless and Hollon (1998).”
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“…showing beneficial effects in outcome research should be taught and used in preference to interventions that have not been tested and shown to be effective (see, e.g., Calhoun, Moras, Pilkonis, & Rehm, 1998; Chambless et al., 1998; Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Chorpita, 2003; Lonigan & Elbert, 1998).”
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“, Chambless & Hollon, 1998), other factors such as feasibility, generalizability, cost, and magnitude and range of the effects must be taken into consideration as well to give a more complete assessment of the suitability of any given treatment for application in practice settings (see Chorpita et al., 2002). Indeed,…”
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“These criteria were based on an authoritative review of empirically supported psychotherapies (Chambless & Hollon, 1998), and on the criteria proposed by the Cochrane Collaboration to assess the methodological validity of a study (Higgins & Green, 2006).”
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“8,23,24 Furthermore, the use of therapy manuals and the treatment of a specific disorder are required.”
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“Several professional organizations have established criteria for determining a social intervention as being efficacious or evidence-based (Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Kratochwill & Stoiber, 2002; Odom et al., 2004).”
BackgroundPsychological treatment of generalized anxiety disorder: A meta-analysis
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“…prior researchers have argued that at least three studies from two different researchers are needed to have a good estimate of a relationship (e.g., Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Oh, Guay et al., 2014) Thus, to obtain good empirical evidence, we set the minimum cutoff number of primary studies for…”
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“28,29 Nevertheless, its moderating effects have only previously been examined twice.”
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“LTFU evaluations are necessary in the demonstration of treatment efficacy (Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Westen & Morrison, 2001).”
BackgroundMethodWeslen, D., & Morrison, K. M. (2002) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e323162004-001 · Cited by 511
Silverman, W. K., Kurtines, W. M., Ginsburg, G. S., Weems, C. F., Lumpkin, P. W., & Carmichael, D. H. (1999) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.67.6.995 · Cited by 512
Stewart, R. E., & Chambless, D. L. (2009) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016032 · Cited by 483
“For example, there is no reason why controlled efficacy trials cannot take place in applied clinical settings with minimal exclusion criteria and clinically representative therapists as hybrid effectiveness– efficacy studies maximizing both internal and external validity ( Chambless & Hollon, 1998; for an example, see…”
Self-citationGraham, C. D., Gouick, J., Krahé, C., & Gillanders, D. (2016) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2016.04.009 · Cited by 476
Empirically supported individual and group psychological treatments for adult mental disorders
DeRubeis, R. J., & Crits-Christoph, P. (1998) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.66.1.37 · Cited by 486
“Many studies have been omitted from this article for a wide variety of other reasons, most of which are spelled out in Chambless and Hollon (1998) .”
BackgroundA critical review of psychological treatments of posttraumatic stress disorder in refugees
Nickerson, A., Bryant, R. A., Silove, D., & Steel, Z. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.10.004 · Cited by 457
Whaley, A. L., & Davis, K. E. (2007) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.62.6.563 · Cited by 458
Treatment selection in depression.
Cohen, Z. D., & DeRubeis, R. J. (2018) · Annual Review of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050817-084746 · Cited by 435
Expanding the lens of evidence-based practice in psychotherapy: A common factors perspective.
Laska, K. M., Gurman, A. S., & Wampold, B. E. (2014) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/a0034332 · Cited by 443
“The EST approach proposes that psychotherapeutic treatments contain specific techniques that are purported to remediate identifiable deficits that form the diathesis of a given mental disorder (Barlow, 2004; Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Chambless et al., 1996).”
BackgroundBehavioral activation treatments for depression in adults: A meta-analysis and review.
Mazzucchelli, T., Kane, R., & Rees, C. (2009) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2009.01178.x · Cited by 438
Arch, J. J., Eifert, G. H., Davies, C., Vilardaga, J. C. P., Rose, R. D., & Craske, M. G. (2012) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028310 · Cited by 443
Piet, J., Würtzen, H., & Zachariae, R. (2012) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0028329 · Cited by 436
The Value of Interrupted Time-Series Experiments for Community Intervention Research
Biglan, A., Ary, D., & Wagenaar, A. C. (2000) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1023/a:1010024016308 · Cited by 444
“Ironically, labeling these designs ''quasi-experimental'' may also undermine the movement toward selection of practices on the basis of sound empirical evidence (e.g., Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
BackgroundEye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): A meta-analysis.
Davidson, P. R., & Parker, K. C. H. (2001) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.69.2.305 · Cited by 435
“Two of the studies assessed clinical significance using normative comparisons as described by Kendall et al. (1999), and the other three used other measures of clinical significance as it is defined in that article.”
Baucom, D. H., Shoham, V., Mueser, K. T., Daiuto, A. D., & Stickle, T. R. (1998) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.66.1.53 · Cited by 608
“tions, we used the following categories based on Chambless and Hollon's (1998) criteria.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPsychotherapy research with ethnic minorities: Empirical, ethical, and conceptual issues.
Hall, G. C. N. (2001) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.69.3.502 · Cited by 430
Dingfelder, H. E., & Mandell, D. S. (2010) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-010-1081-0 · Cited by 460
“No Child Left Behind and practice standards of assessing efficacy used for mental health interventions (Chambless and Hollon 1998; Weisz and Hawley 1998) consider independent randomized controlled trials (RCT) to be the gold standard.”
BackgroundChalfant, A. M., Rapee, R., & Carroll, L. (2007) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0318-4 · Cited by 428
“It has been suggested recently that evidence for the efficacy of CBT in treating childhood anxiety disorders is now strong enough to warrant CBT being considered as a ‘‘Probably Efficacious’’ treatment in accordance with the criteria for ‘‘Empirically Supported Treatment’’ set out by the American Psychological Associa…”
Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR): A meta-analysis.
Davidson, P. R., & Parker, K. C. H. (2001) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-006x.69.2.305 · Cited by 424
Solution‐Focused Brief Therapy: A Review of the Outcome Research*
Gingerich, W. J., & Eisengart, S. P. (2000) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/j.1545-5300.2000.39408.x · Cited by 424
Weisz, J. R., Kuppens, S., Eckshtain, D., Ugueto, A. M., Hawley, K. M., & Jensen-Doss, A. (2013) · JAMA Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.1176 · Cited by 412
Scott, S., Webster-Stratton, C., Spender, Q., Doolan, M., Jacobs, B., & Aspland, H. (2001) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.323.7306.194 · Cited by 420
A systematic review of sensory processing interventions for children with autism spectrum disorders
Case‐Smith, J., Weaver, L. L., & Fristad, M. A. (2014) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361313517762 · Cited by 492
“net) (Chambless and Hollon, 1998; Nathan and Gorman, 2007); Physiotherapy Evidence Database PEDro scale (http://www.”
BackgroundMethodThe efficacy of short-term psychodynamic psychotherapy for depression: A meta-analysis update
Driessen, E., Hegelmaier, L. M., Abbass, A. A., Barber, J. P., Dekker, J. J. M., Van, H. L., Jansma, E. P., & Cuijpers, P. (2015) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.07.004 · Cited by 409
Beatty, L., & Binnion, C. (2016) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-016-9556-9 · Cited by 347
“A quality assessment of included studies was conducted, utilizing the five criteria for empirically supported psychotherapies outlined by Chambless and Hollon [19]: (i) appropriate study design with control group, (ii) adequate sample size (defined as a minimum of 25 participants per group), (iii) specified target pop…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialChorpita, B. F., Daleiden, E. L., Ebesutani, C., Young, J., Becker, K. D., Nakamura, B. J., Phillips, L., Ward, A., Lynch, R., Trent, L., et al. (2011) · Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2850.2011.01247.x · Cited by 393
“…to operationalize a treatment outperforming a control group in terms of algorithms for inspecting significant contrasts among multiple measures (see Chambless & Hollon, 1998), although the trend appears to be to count studies in which at least one measure of the target construct demonstrated a…”
BackgroundGARLAND, A. F., HAWLEY, K. M., BROOKMAN-FRAZEE, L., & HURLBURT, M. S. (2008) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/chi.0b013e31816765c2 · Cited by 389
Evidence-Based Psychosocial Treatments for Child and Adolescent Depression
David-Ferdon, C. F., & Kaslow, N. J. (2008) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374410701817865 · Cited by 420
“…for the extent to which each conforms to the Task Force on the Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures criteria (Chambless et al., 1998; Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Chambless et al., 1996; Lonigan, Elbert, & Johnson, 1998) for well-established and probably efficacious interventions.”
BackgroundMethodEvidence‐based practice in clinical psychology: What it is, why it matters; what you need to know
Spring, B. J. (2007) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.20373 · Cited by 389
“The list of empirically supported treatments (EST) assembled for psychology (Chambless & Hollon, 1998; Chambless & Ollendick, 2001) bears similarity to a guideline, except that the compilation is organized based on interventions rather than clinical problems.”
BackgroundIntegrated treatment of substance use and psychiatric disorders
Kelly, T. M., & Daley, D. C. (2013) · Social Work in Public Health · doi:10.1080/19371918.2013.774673 · Cited by 378
Christensen, A., Atkins, D. C., Berns, S., Wheeler, J., Baucom, D. H., & Simpson, L. E. (2004) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.72.2.176 · Cited by 380
“It is also greater than the 25–30 participants per condition that Chambless and Hollon (1998) recommended to show “a reasonably stable estimate of the effects of treatment” (p. 9). In addition, we selected only seriously and stably distressed couples. Previous research has found that the greater the relationship distr…”
BackgroundInfluentialThe effects of psychological therapies under clinically representative conditions: a meta-analysis
Shadish, W. R., Navarro, A. M., Matt, G. E., & Phillips, G. (2000) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.4.512 · Cited by 381
Fisher, P. L., & Wells, A. (2005) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2004.11.007 · Cited by 377
Odom, S. L. (2008) · Topics in Early Childhood Special Education · doi:10.1177/0271121408329171 · Cited by 407
“Division 12 of the American Psychological Association was among the first organizations to establish the level of evidence needed to identify a “psychosocial” treatment practice as “efficacious” or “probably efficacious” (Chambless & Hollon, 1998).”
Perepletchikova, F., Treat, T. A., & Kazdin, A. E. (2007) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-006x.75.6.829 · Cited by 533
Metadata
- Authors
- Chambless, D. L., & Hollon, S. D.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- Vanderbilt University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology
- Published
- 1998
- Volume
- 66
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 7-18
- ISSN
- 0022-006X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2117
- OpenAlex
- W2119475075
- Cited by
- 3,067
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 41 · 2025: 67 · 2024: 67 · 2023: 76 · 2022: 79 · 2021: 110 · 2020: 116 · 2019: 102 · 2018: 110 · 2017: 125 · 2016: 114 · 2015: 144 · 2014: 157 · 2013: 168 · 2012: 185
- FWCI
- 93.95
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Statistics, Probability and Uncertainty › Meta-analysis and systematic reviews
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychology Research and Bibliometrics
- Keywords
- empirically supported treatments, treatment efficacy, replication, effectiveness research, cost-effectiveness, psychological intervention, evidence-based practice
- MeSH terms
- Mental Disorders, Cost-Benefit Analysis, Humans, Patient Compliance, Psychotherapy, Empiricism
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