A comparative view of face perception.
Open accessAbstract
Face perception serves as the basis for much of human social exchange. Diverse information can be extracted about an individual from a single glance at their face, including their identity, emotional state, and direction of attention. Neuropsychological and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments reveal a complex network of specialized areas in the human brain supporting these face-reading skills. Here we consider the evolutionary roots of human face perception by exploring the manner in which different animal species view and respond to faces. We focus on behavioral experiments collected from both primates and nonprimates, assessing the types of information that animals are able to extract from the faces of their conspecifics, human experimenters, and natural predators. These experiments reveal that faces are an important category of visual stimuli for animals in all major vertebrate taxa, possibly reflecting the early emergence of neural specialization for faces in vertebrate evolution. At the same time, some aspects of facial perception are only evident in primates and a few other social mammals, and may therefore have evolved to suit the needs of complex social communication. Because the human brain likely utilizes both primitive and recently evolved neural specializations for the processing of faces, comparative studies may hold the key to understanding how these parallel circuits emerged during human evolution.
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Species that have passed the mirror mark test are typically social species, which often need to visually recognize other individuals to maintain stable social groups.
“These species that have passed the mirror mark test are typically social species (e.g., some birds, great apes, and elephants), which often need to visually recognize other individuals to maintain stable social groups (21, 39, 40).”
From Cleaner fish recognize self in a mirror via self-face recognition like humans (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
The Nonhuman primates, Mammals, and Vertebrates ‘Identity’ sections report mirror-mark self-recognition in great apes, elephants, and magpies, and describe visual recognition of other individuals in several species. They do not establish that species passing the mirror-mark test are typically social, or that visual recognition is needed to maintain stable social groups. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe ability to quickly and accurately differentiate between individual faces likely has an ancient evolutionary origin in humans and related species.
“The ability to quickly and accurately differentiate between individual faces likely has an ancient evolutionary origin in humans and related species (1, 39, 40).”
From Cleaner fish recognize self in a mirror via self-face recognition like humans (2023) · cites this paper as [39]
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Oxytocin blunts social vigilance in the rhesus macaque
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Cleaner fish recognize self in a mirror via self-face recognition like humans
Kohda, M., Bshary, R., Kubo, N., Awata, S., Sowersby, W., Kawasaka, K., Kobayashi, T., & Sogawa, S. (2023) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2208420120 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
“We speculate that these species also refer to mental images of individual-specific face characteristics to distinguish familiar from unfamiliar individuals and to identify between certain familiar individuals (25, 38, 39, 40).”
Discrimination of human faces by archerfish (Toxotes chatareus)
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Videos of conspecifics elicit interactive looking patterns and facial expressions in monkeys
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Effect of distracting faces on visual selective attention in the monkey
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An evolutionary perspective on the behavioral consequences of exogenous oxytocin application
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- Authors
- Leopold, D. A., & Rhodes, G.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- Venue
- Journal of Comparative Psychology
- Published
- 2010
- Volume
- 124
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 233-251
- ISSN
- 0093-4127 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2087
- 0735-7036
- PMC
- PMC2998394
- OpenAlex
- W2009439248
- Cited by
- 311
- References
- 304
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 29 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 27 · 2020: 27 · 2019: 20 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 22 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 13 · 2013: 17 · 2012: 5
- FWCI
- 6.40
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of comparative psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health
- National Eye Institute
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke
- Australian Research Council
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Primate Behavior and Ecology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Keywords
- face perception, facial expression recognition, emotional expression, social communication, vertebrate evolution, social cognition
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Pan troglodytes, Discrimination, Psychological, Face, Humans, Pattern Recognition, Visual, Primates, Species Specificity
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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