Media use, face-to-face communication, media multitasking, and social well-being among 8-to 12-year-old girls

“More generally, a number of studies in North America have found negative associations between ‘social wellbeing’ and interpersonal interaction online (Pea et al, 2012).”

“In addition, few studies have simultaneously examined the effects of in-person social interaction and electronic communication on the psychological well-being of adolescents, and those that did so were conducted before smartphones gained market saturation (e.g., Pea et al., 2012).”

“…2012; Carrier, Cheever, Rosen, Benitez, & Chang, 2009; Junco, 2013; Kimbrough, Guadagno, Muscanell, & Dill, 2012; Padilla-Walker & Coyne, 2011; Pea et al., 2012; Reich, Subrahmanyam, & Espinoza, 2012; Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010; Rosen, Carrier, & Cheever, 2013; Rosen, Chang, Erwin,…”

“Furthermore, in a cross-sectional study of preadolescent girls, those who engaged in higher levels of media multitasking showed lower levels of social success, including having fewer friends and feeling less accepted (Pea et al. 2012); frequency of face-to-face communication, on the other hand, was associated with hig…”

“However, concerns have been raised about media effects on physical health (Council on Communications and Media, 2016; Iannotti, Kogan, Janssen, & Boyce, 2009; Reid Chassiakos, Radesky, Christakis, Moreno, & Cross) and mental health (Pea et al., 2012; Shakya & Christakis, 2017).”

“An emerging body of research has focused on the socio-cognitive implications of multitasking and divided attention (Cain & Mitroff, 2011; L. Lin, 2009; Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009; Pea et al., 2012).”

“More specifically, media multitasking could simply displace the time spent on face-to-face interactions (Pea et al., 2012).”

“positive mood (Pea et al., 2012), moderates the path from depression to problematic use of mobile phone.”

“In the same way, excessive mobile phone and internet usage may also lead to sleep disturbances (Calamaro et al., 2009; Pea et al., 2012; Van den Bulck, 2003; de Seze et al., 1999).”

“This finding adds a new dimension to Pea et al.’s (2012)”

“We created this Media Use Questionnaire using items from preexisting surveys (Pea et al., 2012; Uhls, 2013).”

“…are constantly exposed to a sensory overload (Misra & Stokols, 2012) that, combined with multitasking possibilities, leads to reduced concentration (Pea et al., 2012), learning (Poldrack & Foerde, 2008) and memorization abilities, with a resulting 2 Estimates suggest that people spend on average…”

“Critically, one of the few studies that has explored ‘‘online multi-tasking’’ among 12 year old girls found it to be associated with lower well-being (Pea et al. 2012).”

“Media multitasking was measured with an adapted version of the measure used by Pea et al. (2012) and Ophir et al. (2009).”

“Teenagers are moving away from face-to-face connection, which is limiting offline social support even though it has increasingly been linked to positive social well-being [27].”

“…between media multitasking and various selfreport measures, these studies have primarily focused on affective well-being (Pea et al., 2012; Rideout et al., 2010;Shih, 2013), personality traits (Minear et al., 2013; Ophir et al., 2009; Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013) or beliefs about/reasons for…”

“We used the shorter version of the media multitasking questionnaire (Ophir et al., 2009) adapted by Pea et al. (2012) to create a media multitasking variable for each participant.”

“Moreover, SNS and IM communication enable people to multitask and have several conversations at the same time (Pea et al., 2012; Schroeder, 2010), which might intensify the aforementioned process.”

“A substantial literature now links media multitasking to attentional problems during daily life (Baumgartner et al. 2014, Pea et al. 2012, Ralph et al. 2014, Sanbonmatsu et al. 2013).”

“Indeed, many interactive technologies, such as smartphones and laptops, are designed as multitasking facilitators and encourage maximum user efficiency (Pea et al., 2012; Hwang et al., 2014).”

“Multitasking is also common among students (Carrier et al., 2009; Ophir et al., 2009; Pea et al., 2012; Rosen et al., 2013; Srivastava, 2013; Wang and Tchernev, 2012) and associated with lower academic or test performance (Junco, 2012; Junco and Cotten, 2012; Wood et al.”

“…and media effects researchers that relentless media multitasking is distracting adolescents from tasks requiring deep thinking, taking time away from family, harming their social connections, cognitive performance, and socio-emotional well-being (Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009; Pea et al., 2012).”

“Although scholars argue that technological interaction often makes it difficult to create and maintain intimacy, especially with girls (Pea et al., 2012), I find that the conditions of transnational families produce different results even if families are using similar types of technologies.”

“…technologies can benefit and diminish children’s social wellbeing (Gutnick, Robb, Takeuchi, & Kotler, 2010; Manago, Taylor, & Greenfield, 2012; Pea et al., 2012; Reich, Subrahmanyam, & Espinoza, 2012; Smahel, Brown, & Blinka, 2012), it will become increasingly important for the developmental…”

“Conversely, face-to-face communication was strongly associated with positive psychosocial well-being.(48) A study of Japanese children aged 5–14 years reports ST had a strong association with negative feeling upon awakening and recommends guidelines for child ST as a preventive measure.”

“The second approach focuses on information of social media in general without making distinctions among platforms (e.g., Nesi et al. 2017; Pea et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2017).”

“Measures Youth Weekly Screen Time Parents were asked 2 questions regarding their child’s screen time: “Now thinking about (target child)’s typical activities, on a typical weekday (“weekend” in second question) how much time does (target child) spend doing each of the following at home?” Parents responded with the num…”

“Developmentally, this is very relevant in that many of the interpersonal processes that are important for social-emotional development may now be transitioning to the online environment, which could result in poorer psychosocial wellbeing (Pea et al. 2012).”

“There is evidence, however, that media multitasking during these years is associated with negative social well-being (Pea et al., 2012).”

“Moreover, as the youth are known to be media multitaskers [16,19] we enquired about which devices they used online.”

“, 2009) and are associated with a wide range of positive social and psychological feelings (Pea et al., 2012).”

“The large majority of studies on the potential cognitive e ff ects of media multitasking are based on self ‐ reported measures of media multitasking (see Ophir et al., 2009; Pea et al., 2012; Ralph et al., 2013; Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013).”

“Except for a few (Kim et al., 2015; Pea et al., 2012), there has been rarely any study looking at the role of FtF interaction in the effects of media on users' well-being.”

“Inferences range from statements about how adolescents from different eras use media differently (Twenge, 2017) to gender differences in social media dependence (Pea et al., 2012) to multitasking effects that differ by cognitive abilities (Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009).”

“, interactions with peers, including instant messaging, text messaging, and cell phones) (Kauderer and Randler 2012; Pea et al. 2012) and increased use of alcohol and other substances that contribute to sleep disruption (Wong et al.”

“Adolescents who frequently use social media during the day report less total sleep time [17] and poorer sleep quality [18].”

“…media attention and the most commonly promulgated findings are that people are poor multitaskers, that people are unable to multitask, or that multitasking actively damages cognition and concentration (Ophir, Nass, & Wagner, 2009; Pea et al., 2012; Srivastava, 2013; Wang & Tchernev, 2012).”

“In addition, better access to the Internet such as exclusive personal computer ownership might have induced more social media use in adolescents from higher income families (Pea et al., 2012).”

“A relationship between higher levels of media multitasking and worse sleep has already been reported several times, both in children [52] and adolescents [51, PLOS ONE Media use, attention, mental health and academic performance among 8 to 12 year old children”

“Most research has concentrated on the negative ramifications of technological engagement such as poorer psychological (1,2) and physical health (3,4) and worse health behaviors (5,6).”

“The impact begins at a young age; in a survey of 3,461 North American girls aged 8-12, multitasking was inversely face-to-face communication, feelings of social success, and sleep [19].”

“In a large-scale study which involved 3461 8-12-year-old girls, Pea et al. (2012) found that media multitasking was positively correlated with social success, but it was negatively correlated with normalcy feelings, positive feelings, and social stress.”

“For example, the increased use of the Internet for enjoyment is associated with sleep disorders (Pea et al., 2012) such as sleeping late and increased waking hours (Shochat, Flint-Bretler, & Tzischinsky, 2010), along with lower sleep quality (Choi et al., 2009) and feelings of exhaustion (Luqman et…”

“As adolescents are known to be media multitaskers [32], we also controlled the number of devices used to connect to the Internet, with six possible answers: console, computer, smartphone, tablet, television, and other.”

“Despite the benefits of social media for children, such as building and maintaining prosocial relationships (Jacobsen & Forste, 2011; Kir-iukhina, 2019; Pea et al., 2012), it also carries risks by exposing users to cyberbullying (Shakir et al., 2019).”

“As studies have only examined the cross-sectional relationship between media multitasking and sleep problems (Calamaro et al., 2009; Mark et al., 2016; Pea et al., 2012), empirical evidence for a reciprocal relationship between media multitasking and sleep problems is lacking.”

“…McCurdy, Lewis, & Younggren, 2013; Ophir et al., 2009; Ralph, Thomson, Seli, Carriere, & Smilek, 2015; Sanbonmatsu, Strayer, Medeiros-Ward, & Watson, 2013; Uncapher, Thieu, & Wagner, 2016) and personality traits (e.g., Pea et al., 2012; Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013; Shih, 2013; Wilmer & Chein, 2016).”

“As these face-to-face interactions with peers are recognized as key determinants of socioemotional development, the decreased quality of these may thus have considerable consequences (Pea et al., 2012).”

“Studies examining cognitive function in children and adults in the general population have also reported changes in the structure of the brain areas responsible for cognitive control and emotional regulation in association with addictive screen time behavior [63, 64].”

“The increased use of the Internet for enjoyment is associated with sleep disorders (Pea et al. 2012), such as late sleeping and waking times (Shochat, Flint-Bretler, and Tzischinsky 2010).”

“Lastly, media multitasking can include any combination mentioned above but can also include no digital media activities, such doing homework or having dinner (Pea et al., 2012).”

“…score (Lui & Wong, 2012; Ophir et al., 2009), MMI scores in the upper and lower quartiles (Cain & Mitroff, 2011; Sanbonmatsu et al, 2013) or the top and bottom 10% of media use scores (Baumgartner et al., 2014 used a media use inventory adapted from both Pea et al., 2012 and Ophir et al., 2009).”

“To this point, numerous studies have examined the relationship between anxiety and media multitasking (e.g., Becker, Alzahabi, & Hopwood, 2013; Pea et al., 2012; Rosen, Whaling, Rab, Carrier, & Cheever, 2013).”

“29,30 However, few studies 31,32 have explored how engaging in different sensory information influences short-term interpersonal outcomes.”

“Spitzer [40] argued that social skills are better taught through face-to-face contact [41].”

“Heavy multitasking was also shown to take a toll on social life, since the practice leads to fewer face-to-face interactions (Pea et al., 2012) and higher social anxiety, both related to lower well-being (Becker, Alzahabi, & Hopwood, 2013).”

“However, these studies have investigated switching between various types of media and have not focused specifically on mobile phone usage (but see [24]).”

“For example, we could use psychological concepts such as multi-tasking and switching tasks (Pea et al., 2012; Rosen et al., 2013) to understand how social media use affects us.”

“At the same time, media use among younger girls (ages 8–12) has been shown to be associated with negative social well-being (Pea et al., 2012), suggesting that adolescents may be able to use media more effectively than younger children.”