Domain-general enhancements of metacognitive ability through adaptive training.
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Abstract
The metacognitive ability to introspect about self-performance varies substantially across individuals. Given that effective monitoring of performance is deemed important for effective behavioral control, intervening to improve metacognition may have widespread benefits, for example in educational and clinical settings. However, it is unknown whether and how metacognition can be systematically improved through training independently of task performance, or whether metacognitive improvements generalize across different task domains. Across 8 sessions, here we provided feedback to two groups of participants in a perceptual discrimination task: an experimental group (n = 29) received feedback on their metacognitive judgments, while an active control group (n = 32) received feedback on their decision performance only. Relative to the control group, adaptive training led to increases in metacognitive calibration (as assessed by Brier scores), which generalized both to untrained stimuli and an untrained task (recognition memory). Leveraging signal detection modeling we found that metacognitive improvements were driven both by changes in metacognitive efficiency (meta-d'/d') and confidence level, and that later increases in metacognitive efficiency were positively mediated by earlier shifts in confidence. Our results reveal a striking malleability of introspection and indicate the potential for a domain-general enhancement of metacognitive abilities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
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Delivering feedback to improve confidence calibration over a period of two weeks elevates metacognitive efficiency not only on the trained task but also more broadly.
“As another example, delivering feedback to improve confidence calibration over a period of two weeks shows promise in elevating metacognitive efficiency not only on the trained task but also more broadly (Carpenter et al. 2019).”
From Metacognition and Confidence: A Review and Synthesis (2024) · cites this paper as Carpenter et al. 2019
The Method (Training; Participants) describes eight feedback sessions over 8–34 days, with experimental participants averaging 15.4 days. The Results (Metacognitive Efficiency and Bias) reports improved efficiency on the trained task and transfer to an untrained stimulus, but says evidence for transfer of efficiency across task domains was equivocal. Broader transfer was demonstrated for the composite calibration measure, not clearly for efficiency itself. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredMetacognitive interventions, such as training through feedback on metacognitive performance, can increase judgment accuracy.
“Metacognitive interventions, such as training through feedback on metacognitive performance [30], can, for example, increase judgment accuracy-the ability to distinguish between one's own correct and incorrect metacognitive processing.”
From The Metacognitive Demands and Opportunities of Generative AI (2024) · cites this paper as [30]
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Ackerman, R. (2023) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-023-09771-z · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Evidence for Age-Equivalent and Task-Dissociative Metacognition in the Memory Domain
Zakrzewski, A. C., Sanders, E. C., & Berry, J. M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.630143 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Sidra, S., & Mason, C. (2024) · IEEE Conference on Artificial Intelligence (CAI) · doi:10.1109/cai59869.2024.00211 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Metacognition as a window into subjective affective experience
Cushing, C. A., Lau, H. C., Hofmann, S. G., LeDoux, J. E., & Taschereau‐Dumouchel, V. (2024) · Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences · doi:10.1111/pcn.13683 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Self-citationMeditation focused on self-observation of the body impairs metacognitive efficiency
Schmidt, C., Gabriel Reyes, M., Barrientos, M., Langer, A. I., & Sackur, J. (2019) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2019.03.001 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Cai, Y., Jin, Z., Zhai, C., Wang, H., Wang, J., Tang, Y., & Kwok, S. C. (2022) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-022-03762-6 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Mazancieux, A., Fleming, S. M., Souchay, C., & Moulin, C. J. A. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dr7ba · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationMetacognitive processing in language learning tasks is affected by bilingualism.
Ordin, M., Polyanskaya, L., & Soto, D. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/xlm0000739 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Metacognitive Computations for Information Search: Confidence in ControlPreprint
Schulz, L., Fleming, S. M., & Dayan, P. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.03.01.433342 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationBadal, V. D., Depp, C. A., Harvey, P. D., Ackerman, R. A., Moore, R. C., & Pinkham, A. E. (2022) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291722000939 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Cultural influence on metacognition: comparison across three societies
Ordin, M., El‐Dakhs, D. A. S., Ming, T., Chu, F., & Polyanskaya, L. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-04013-1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Connais-toi toi-même : une perspective globale de la métacognition
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Grabman, J. H., & Dodson, C. S. (2023) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2023.105659 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
The relation between task-relatedness of anxiety and metacognitive performance
Culot, C., Corlazzoli, G., Fantini‐Hauwel, C., & Gevers, W. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103191 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
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Changing minds about climate change: a pervasive role for domain-general metacognition
Beukelaer, S. D., Vehar, N., Rollwage, M., Fleming, S. M., & Manos Tsakiris, A. (2023) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-023-01528-x · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Self-citationAgnoli, S., Zuberer, A., Nanni‐Zepeda, M., McGlinchey, R. E., Milberg, W., Esterman, M. S., & Degutis, J. M. (2023) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/2023/2925551 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Factors perpetuating functional cognitive symptoms after mild traumatic brain injury
Picon, E. L., Wardell, V., Palombo, D., Todd, R., Aziz, B., Bedi, S., & Silverberg, N. (2023) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2023.2247601 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Advice-taking as a bridge between decision neuroscience and mental capacity
van der Plas, E., David, A. S., & Fleming, S. M. (2019) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2019.101504 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationThe Cognition/Metacognition Trade-Off
Rosenbaum, D., Glickman, M., Fleming, S. M., & Usher, M. (2022) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/09567976211043428 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Self-citationSaid, N., Frauhammer, L. T., & Huff, M. (2023) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2023.102128 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Hu, X., Yang, C., & Luo, L. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001257 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Typological differences influence the bilingual advantage in metacognitive processing.
Polyanskaya, L., Manrique, H. M., Marín, A., García‐Palacios, A., & Ordin, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001225 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Embon, I., Cukier, S., Iorio, A., Barttfeld, P., & Solovey, G. (2023) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2023.103502 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Think twice: Re-assessing confidence improves visual metacognition
Elosegi, P., Rahnev, D., & Soto, D. (2023) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-023-02823-0 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Torres, I. J., Hıdıroğlu, C., Mackala, S. A., Ahn, S., Yatham, L. N., Ozerdem, E., & Michalak, E. E. (2021) · European Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/j.eurpsy.2021.31 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Confirmation bias is adaptive when coupled with efficient metacognitionPreprint
Rollwage, M., & Fleming, S. M. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.07.28.225029 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationMorris, A. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4nf5c · Cited by 10 · see citing works
A characterization of the neural representation of confidence during probabilistic learning
Bounmy, T., Eger, E., & Meyniel, F. (2023) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119849 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Episodic and semantic feeling-of-knowing in aging: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Devaluez, M., Mazancieux, A., & Souchay, C. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-36251-9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Noël, X., Saeremans, M., Kornreich, C., Chatard, A., Jaafari, N., & D’Argembeau, A. (2022) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/acer.14763 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Dynamics of task-based confidence in schizophrenia using seasonal decomposition approach
Badal, V. D., Depp, C. A., Pinkham, A. E., & Harvey, P. D. (2023) · Schizophrenia Research Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.scog.2023.100278 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Littrell, S., Fugelsang, J. A., & Risko, E. F. (2024) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2024.112570 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Mobile facial affect recognition and real-time social experiences in serious mental illness
Parrish, E. M., Lin, J., Scott, V. P., Pinkham, A. E., Harvey, P. D., Moore, R. C., Ackerman, R. A., & Depp, C. A. (2022) · Schizophrenia Research Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.scog.2022.100253 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Neural Correlates of Metacognition Impairment in Opioid Addiction
Moeller, S. J., Abeykoon, S. K., Dhayagude, P., Varnas, B., Weinstein, J. J., Perlman, G., Gil, R. B., Fleming, S. M., & Abi‐Dargham, A. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.07.014 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationMetacognitive Domains Are Not Aligned along a Dimension of Internal-External Information Source
Arbuzova, P., Maurer, L. K., & Filevich, E. (2022) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-022-02201-1 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
The effect of writing script on efficiency and metacognitive monitoring in inferential word learning
Polyanskaya, L., El‐Dakhs, D. A. S., Ming, T., Chu, F., & Ordin, M. (2024) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-024-09380-3 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Seow, T. X. F., Jelinek, L., Moritz, S., & Hauser, T. U. (2025) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-025-00503-4 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Shimizu, T. (2022) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics12020356 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Confidence Tracks Consciousness*
Morales, J., & Lau, H. C. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108768085.007 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationFunctional cognitive disorder: Beyond pseudodementia
Marín‐Medina, D. S., Arenas-Vargas, P. A., Velásquez-Duque, M. D. P., & Bagnati, P. (2024) · Neurology Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.neurop.2024.100179 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
You better listen to yourself: studying metacognitive efficiency in emotion recognition by voice
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The predictive brain model in diagnostic reasoning
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Online self-evaluation of fMRI-based neurofeedback performance
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Metacognition facilitates theory of mind through optimal weighting of trait inferences
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Facilitating clinical reasoning for medical students in clinical settings: a scoping review
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Harvey, P. D., Strassnig, A., Strassnig, M., Heaton, A., Kuehn, K. S., Torre, P., Sundermann, E. E., Pinkham, A. E., Depp, C. A., Black, G., et al. (2023) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2023.07.009 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Is there a survival processing effect in metacognition?
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Tackling cognitive decline in late adulthood: Cognitive interventions
von Bastian, C. C., Hyde, E. R. A., & Jiang, S. (2023) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2023.101780 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Reply to: Metacognition, Adaptation, and Mental Health
Seow, T. X. F., Rouault, M., Gillan, C. M., & Fleming, S. M. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.11.005 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationNoradrenergic and Dopaminergic modulation of meta-cognition and meta-control
Ershadmanesh, S., Rajabi, S., Rostami, R., Moran, R., & Dayan, P. (2025) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1012675 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Morris, A. (2025) · Open Mind · doi:10.1162/opmi_a_00204 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
- Authors
- Carpenter, J., Sherman, M. T., Kievit, R. A., Seth, A. K., Lau, H., & Fleming, S. M.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging (GB)
- University of Sussex (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Fleming, Stephen M.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2019-01
- Volume
- 148
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 51-64
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- PMC
- PMC6390881
- OpenAlex
- W2953011441
- Cited by
- 174
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 36 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 24 · 2020: 17 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 8.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) (acceptedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Sussex Research Online (University of Sussex) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Figshare (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (University of Cambridge) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Apollo (cc-by)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (R01NS088628)
- Wellcome Trust (206648/Z/17/Z)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Visual perception and processing mechanisms
- Keywords
- metacognition, metacognitive calibration, metacognitive training, self-reflection, metacognitive efficiency, confidence, feedback, perceptual discrimination, recognition memory, signal detection theory, Brier score
- MeSH terms
- Metacognition, Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Practice, Psychological, Task Performance and Analysis, Feedback, Psychological, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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