The neuroscience of working memory capacity and training
Abstract
Working memory - the ability to maintain and manipulate information over a period of seconds - is a core component of higher cognitive functions. The storage capacity of working memory is limited but can be expanded by training, and evidence of the neural mechanisms underlying this effect is accumulating. Human imaging studies and neurophysiological recordings in non-human primates, together with computational modelling studies, reveal that training increases the activity of prefrontal neurons and the strength of connectivity in the prefrontal cortex and between the prefrontal and parietal cortex. Dopaminergic transmission could have a facilitatory role. These changes more generally inform us of the plasticity of higher cognitive functions.
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Working memory impairment is prevalent across neuropsychiatric and neurological conditions and is among the most sensitive early indicators of cognitive function decline, with links to everyday functional limitations and reduced quality of life.
“Working memory impairment is prevalent across neuropsychiatric and neurological conditions and is among the most sensitive early indicators of cognitive function decline, with clear links to everyday functional limitations and reduced quality of life10–13.”
From Meta-analysis of computerised working memory training: behavioural gains, training parameters, transfer mechanisms, and neural correlates (2026) · cites this paper as [10]
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Self-citationIntensive Working Memory Training Produces Functional Changes in Large-scale Frontoparietal Networks
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Meyers, E. M., Qi, X.-L., & Constantinidis, C. (2012) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1201022109 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Self-citationAssociations between white matter microstructure and infants' working memory
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Short-Term Memory Trace in Rapidly Adapting Synapses of Inferior Temporal Cortex
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Self-citationWorking Memory Training Promotes General Cognitive Abilities in Genetically Heterogeneous Mice
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A working memory model based on fast Hebbian learning
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Self-citationChildhood cognitive development as a skill
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Self-citationA change detection approach to study visual working memory of the macaque monkey
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A Probabilistic Palimpsest Model of Visual Short-term Memory
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Correlated discharges in the primate prefrontal cortex before and after working memory training
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Self-citationNeural Correlates of a Decision Variable Before Learning to Perform a Match/Non-Match Task
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Self-citationWorking memory performance and neural activity in prefrontal cortex of peripubertal monkeys
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Self-citationRehabilitation of endogenous task shift processes in closed head injury patients
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The frontal granular cortex and behavior
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Friedman (2000) · doi:10.1002/1097-0029(20001001)51:1
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Media use and brain development during adolescence
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Working memory training involves learning new skills
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Domain-general enhancements of metacognitive ability through adaptive training.
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Working memory training mostly engages general-purpose large-scale networks for learning
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Adaptive working memory training does not produce transfer effects in cognition and neuroimaging
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The Effects of Working Memory Training on Brain Activity
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Dual n-back working memory training evinces superior transfer effects compared to the method of loci
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Neural correlates of working memory training: An fMRI meta-analysis
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A dual-process model for cognitive training
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Pre-reflective and reflective abnormalities in cortical midline structures in schizophrenia
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“Working memory impairment is prevalent acrossneuropsychiatric and neurological conditions and isamong the most sensitive early indicators of cognitive function decline, with clear links to everyday functional limitations and reduced quality of life 10 – 13 .”
Zhong, L.-A., Chen, K.-Y., Hsieh, M.-J., & Ho, M.-C. (2025) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2025.105499 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The asymmetry of working memory training transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Fu, J., Zhou, Y., Yuan, M., & Cai, Y. (2026) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-026-02994-5
- Authors
- Constantinidis, C., & Klingberg, T.
- Affiliations
- Wake Forest University Health Sciences (US)
- Karolinska Institutet (SE)
- Corresponding author
- Klingberg, Torkel
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Neuroscience
- Published
- 2016-05-26
- Volume
- 17
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 438-449
- ISSN
- 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0048
- OpenAlex
- W2400660831
- Cited by
- 533
- References
- 145
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 62 · 2024: 64 · 2023: 45 · 2022: 45 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 60 · 2019: 54 · 2018: 60 · 2017: 36 · 2016: 4 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 6.81
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- National Eye Institute (R01EY017077)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural dynamics and brain function
- Keywords
- working memory, working memory capacity, cognitive training, prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, dopamine signaling, neuroplasticity, computational modelling, non-human primates
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Brain, Brain Mapping, Humans, Learning, Memory, Neural Pathways, Neurons
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