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Deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass with ionic liquids
Open accessAbstract
This paper reviews the application of ionic liquids to the deconstruction and fractionation of lignocellulosic biomass, in a process step that is commonly called pretreatment. It is divided into four parts: the first gives background information on lignocellulosic biomass and ionic liquids; the second focuses on the solubility of lignocellulosic biomass (and the individual biopolymers within it) in ionic liquids; the third emphasises the deconstruction effects brought about by the use of ionic liquids as a solvent; the fourth part deals with practical considerations regarding the design of ionic liquid based deconstruction processes.
Overview
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TL;DR
This review surveys ionic liquids for deconstruction and fractionation of lignocellulosic biomass, covering biomass composition, biopolymer solubility, deconstruction effects, and process design. It distinguishes Dissolution and Ionosolv approaches and highlights ionic liquid cost, stability, recycling, water sensitivity, and downstream inhibition as key challenges.
Key findings
- Cellulose solubility in ionic liquids depends strongly on anion hydrogen-bond basicity; high Kamlet-Taft β (>0.8) is apparent, with [C₂C₁im][MeCO₂] dissolving up to 15 wt% Avicel cellulose at 110 °C, while long alkyl/glycol chains or protic cations reduce solubility.
- Lignin solubility varies widely, from virtually insoluble to 30 wt%; e.g. [C₂C₁im][MeCO₂] dissolves 30 wt% Kraft lignin at 90 °C, [C₁C₁im][MeSO₄] and [C₄C₁im][MeSO₄] dissolve 26 wt% at 50 °C, and [C₄C₁im][PF₆] dissolves 0–1 wt%.
- [C₂C₁im][MeCO₂] treatment removes 17–65% lignin and 0–83% hemicellulose depending on feedstock and conditions; softwood is generally less delignified. Saccharification yields after ionic liquid pretreatment vary, e.g. Miscanthus with [C₄C₁im][MeSO₃] gave 98% glucose, [C₄C₁im][HSO₄] 91%, and [C₂C₁im][MeCO₂] 73%; maple with [C₄C₁im][MeCO₂] gave 74% glucose.
- Process challenges include ionic liquid thermal stability: T₀.₀₁/₁₀h for [C₄C₁im][MeCO₂] was measured as 102 °C, implying a maximum process temperature of ca. 90 °C, yet many biomass treatments run above this. Residual ionic liquid inhibits enzymes and yeast; adding 10% v/v ionic liquid decreased cellulase activity by 70–85%, and as little as 0.25% residual [C₂C₁im][MeCO₂] completely inhibited yeast growth and biofuel production.
Methods
- Review article divided into four parts: background on lignocellulosic biomass and ionic liquids; solubility of lignocellulosic biomass and individual biopolymers in ionic liquids; deconstruction effects of ionic liquids as solvents; and practical considerations for ionic liquid based deconstruction processes.
- Synthesizes literature and tabulates ionic liquid properties, cellulose/lignin/lignocellulose solubility, delignification and hemicellulose removal, saccharification yields, lignin recovery, and ionic liquid stability/recycling.
- No new primary experimental data are presented except the authors report an unpublished T₀.₀₁/₁₀h measurement for [C₄C₁im][MeCO₂] as 102 °C.
Limitations
- The paper does not state a formal limitations section; as a review, it notes that data variability and inconsistent protocols complicate quantitative comparison, e.g. cellulose solubility measurements were performed under different temperature, dissolution time, cellulose degree of polymerisation, moisture content, and ionic liquid purity.
- Evident from the text: many cited studies are preliminary, especially ionic liquid recycling studies (often only 1–10 reuses), and the review identifies unresolved scale-up issues including ionic liquid cost, drying/reconcentration energy, water sensitivity, ionic liquid degradation, downstream inhibition, and the absence of commercialised ionic liquid deconstruction processes.
- Evident from the text: the review relies on literature with limited feedstock and ionic liquid coverage; for example, lignin solubility studies are essentially all with imidazolium ionic liquids, and experimental validation of the relative importance of the imidazolium cation for lignin solubilisation is still missing.
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In the paper
“A protic cation prevents cellulose solubilisation entirely in many cases.57,91”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
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In the paper
“Despite these difficulties, the tabulated data show that [C 2 C 1 im][MeCO 2 ] is capable of partially removing both hemicellulose and lignin simultaneously.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
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“The choice of cation also affects solubility considerably.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
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In the paper
“For [C 4 C 1 im][HSO 4 ], and also for its acid-base ionic liquid analogue [C 4 Him][HSO 4 ], the delignification seems to be more extensive than with [C 2 C 1 im]-[MeCO 2 ].”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
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“Lengthening the alkyl (or glycol) chains on the cation progressively reduces cellulose solubility.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
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In the paper
“Although the measurements were performed under a variety of conditions (e.g.different temperature, dissolution time, cellulose degree of polymerisation, moisture content, ionic liquid purity), which affect the maximum solubility, the importance of a high β value (>0.8) is apparent.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
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“Less extensive delignification and hemicellulose removal is generally achieved for softwood ( pine) feedstocks compared to herbaceous and hardwood lignocellulose.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
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In the paper
“Hydroxyl groups on the alkyl chains, functionalities that increase the hydrogen-bond acidity of the ionic liquid, also reduce the solubility of cellulose.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
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In the paper
“The ionic liquid [C 4 C 1 pyrr][MeCO 2 ], based on an aliphatic (cyclic) ammonium cation, which usually show lower resistance to decomposition than imidazolium cations, decomposed completely within just 30 h at 120 °C.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
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“Wang et al. reused [CvC 2 C 1 im]Cl once after a dissolution treatment of 5 wt% pine and did not detect any reduction in performance.121”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
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- Not checked yetcites [121] source
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In the paper
“The overall trend is that a higher temperature or a longer treatment time results in more lignin and hemicellulose removal.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
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“Lignin removal was reported to be between 17% and 65%, while hemicellulose removal varied between 0% and 83%.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
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“An increase of the water content in the system appears to lead to less delignification (and also to lower subsequent saccharification yields).55”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
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In the paper
“Interestingly, Ohno and co-workers recently reported the rapid dissolution (5 min) of 15 wt% cellulose in aqueous solutions of tetrabutylphosphonium hydroxide, [(C 4 ) 4 P]OH, and tetrabutylammonium hydroxide, [(C 4 ) 4 N]OH, containing 40-50% water by weight at room temperature.102”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [102] source
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In the paper
“As with cellulose, the solubility seems to be strongly affected by the choice of anion, although hydrogen-bond basicity does not need to be as high as for cellulose; some mid-range basic ionic liquids seem to be better solvents for lignin than their more hydrogen-bond basic relatives (Fig. 19).”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.3 The solubility of lignin in ionic liquids
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In the paper
“They increased the loading stepwise from 4.8 wt% up to 50 wt% for [C 2 C 1 im]-[MeCO 2 ] at 125 °C for 1 h and observed that lignin removal decreased substantially from 44% to 8%.123a”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 123a
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“The reported delignification and hemicellulose removal are significantly lower than achieved with other ionic liquids under the conditions applied.These were coupled with very low glucose yields after enzymatic saccharification.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
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In the paper
“The decomposition is much slower at 60 °C below T onset , but still detectable (Fig. 26).”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
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“[C 2 C 1 im]Cl and [C 4 C 1 im]Cl are longterm stable at 120 °C and show signs of decomposition at 140 °C.176”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
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- Not checked yetcites [176] source
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“It has been found that the type of both cation and anion influences the temperature of decomposition, 169 but there is a strong effect of the anion.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [169] source
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In the paper
“If the stability of an ionic liquid under process conditions is of interest, T onset is only an indicator, as significant mass loss occurs below T onset (Fig. 26).170”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [170] source
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In the paper
“The same study showed methanesulfonate based ionic liquids [C 2 C 1 im][MeSO 3 ] and [C 4 C 1 im][MeSO 3 ] to be stable at 140 °C and to only slowly degrade at 200 °C.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
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- Not checked yetcites [176] source
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In the paper
“An increase of the amount of recovered pulp was observed after the 4th cycle; the lignin content in the recovered solid remained constant over the course of the experiment.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [140] source
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In the paper
“Brandt et al. detected varying amounts of monomeric hemicellulose and furfurals in liquors of [C 4 C 1 im][MeSO 4 ], [C 4 C 1 im][HSO 4 ] and [C 4 C 1 im][MeSO 3 ] after treatment of Miscanthus with fresh ionic liquid, the quantities detected depending on the ionic liquid acidity and the treatment length.55”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Wu et al. reused [C 2 C 1 im][MeCO 2 ] 10 times at 4.8 wt% corn stover loading at 125 °C.The saccharification yield was unaffected, as was the decrystallisation of the cellulose, but less lignin was extracted in the last cycle compared to the first one (44% reduced to 20%).”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
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In the paper
“Francisco et al. found that adsorption of glucose onto zeolites from ionic liquid water mixtures and subsequent desorption into water could be used for removing sugars from the ionic liquid liquor.180”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [180] source
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In the paper
“Lan et al. fractionated bagasse into cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin four times with the same batch of [C 4 C 1 im]Cl.178 The delignification efficiency dropped slightly, the saccharification yield was not investigated.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [178]
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In the paper
“Most studies in the ionic liquid pretreatment field use finely milled biomass for their experiments, due to pronounced particle size effects on the solubilisation.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Brennan et al. have devised an extraction method for glucose and xylose recovery from [C 2 C 1 im][MeCO 2 ] using boronates such as naphthalene-2-boronate.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [182] source
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In the paper
“Shill et al. have attempted to lower the energy use for drying the ionic liquid after dissolution of Miscanthus by re-concentrating diluted ionic liquids with the inorganic salt potassium phosphate (K 3 PO 4 ), but saw a negative effect on saccharification yields after reuse.181”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [181] source
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In the paper
“As an alternative, Viell and Marquardt reported the breaking up of air-dried beech wood chips into individual cell walls under dissolving conditions; 116 this was accomplished by vigorous stirring for 2 h.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [116] source
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In the paper
“The non-baseline power consumption for grinding pine chips was significantly reduced (up to 75%), while a finer powder was obtained, by adding the ionic liquid before the grinding.187”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [187] source
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“No reported work has considered the direct use of this solution.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
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In the paper
“An advantage of the Dissolution Process is the recovery of the majority of the hemicelluloses with the pulp, although along with some lignin, as the delignification in this process is not complete.109,136”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
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In the paper
“Cellulose has extremely low water solubility, and the water content of acetate and chloride based ionic liquids has been observed to have the single greatest impact on the cellulose solubility.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
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In the paper
“One case of deconstruction of corn stover with an [C 2 C 1 im]-[MeCO 2 ]/N-methylpyrrolidone mixture has been reported.193”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [193] source
plainSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The pretreatment is typically conducted by heating the biomass-ionic liquid mixture to 90-160 °C for 3-16 hours, at which point the majority (or entirety) of the biomass is dissolved in the ionic liquid and partial lignin and hemicellulose removal from the lignocellulose has occurred.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“While the latter is a prerequisite for enzymatic saccharification to occur to significant extent, the changed crystallinity of the cellulose also has a measurable positive impact on the speed of saccharification.76a”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 2. Conclusionwhy use ionic liquids?
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 76a
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Unfortunately, some ionic liquids with protic cations may not be applicable in the Dissolution Process due to their increased hydrogen-bond acidity, although others have been shown to be good cellulose solvents.78b”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 78b
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The biomass loading in these studies was in the range of 5-8%.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 2. Conclusionwhy use ionic liquids?
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The ionic liquid cation was identified as the main cause of cell toxicity, as control experiments with inorganic acetate and chloride salts did not lead to the same level of inhibition.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [188] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In addition, the utilisation of the non-carbohydrate fraction, lignin, 9 is highly desirable for the economic viability of any future biorefinery.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > John Gräsvik
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [9] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In order to access the carbohydrates in the biomass for biological conversion, an additional deconstruction step (also commonly called pretreatment or pre-treatment) is required to bring the sugar polymers into a form suitable for hydrolysis and subsequent fermentation.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > John Gräsvik
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Grass lignin can usually be extracted by aqueous alkali, which is not effective on softwood.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The removal of lignin is usually a combination of chemical fragmentation and the ability of the liquor to solvate the modified lignin fragments.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.3 Lignin.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The saccharification can be catalysed by chemicals 41 or enzymes; enzymes are usually preferred due to their higher selectivity.17”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“They have found a number of industrial applications 51 and have also been investigated as solvents for the processing of biomass.10”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Therefore, harsher conditions are usually required and strong nucleophiles such as sulfide (S 2-, in Kraft pulping) or sulfite ([HSO 3 ] -) ions are added to aid lignin removal and prevent lignin recondensation.34”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [34] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cellulose is the most abundant polymer in lignocellulose (35-50%).”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The varying chemical composition (e.g.lignin composition and content) and structural differences (e.g.cell wall thickness and pore size) between the lignocellulose types affects their amenability to deconstruction, therefore the effects of each lignocellulose deconstruction method should be assessed on a number of feedstocks.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“The current industrially most developed lignocellulose treatment processes are therefore in the area of paper production.40”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Hardwoods have more complex structures than softwoods, containing large waterconducting pores or vessels that are surrounded by narrower fibre cells (Fig. 13).”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The lignin is made up of guaiacyl and syringyl units and the main hemicellulose sugar is not mannose but xylose.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but they are more resistant to lignocellulose deconstruction than annual grasses such as straws.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The focus of those working on biomass deconstruction processes is thus the preparation of carbohydrates (mainly cellulose) from lignocellulose in a form that can be readily metabolised by fermenting microorganisms.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Most chemical deconstruction methods modify lignin by hydrolysing its ether bonds, but only some remove it from the pulp (e.g.Organosolv pulping, some base treatments, sulfite pretreatment and pulping, Kraft pulping).”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.3 Lignin.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is thought that they are formed during lignification, when hydroxyl groups of carbohydrates react with electrophilic ketone methide intermediates of the growing lignin polymer chains.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.3 Lignin.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Nevertheless, significant instability of the NMO/cellulose solution above 90 °C and redox activity of the NMO have been viewed as problems, 67 which could be addressed by the use of more stable cellulose dissolving ionic liquids.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [67] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To gain access to the cellulose the lignin-hemicellulose shield must be broken up (Fig. 15), usually by a chemical method at elevated temperature and often also elevated pressure.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“During lignification, its aromatic ring can be incorporated into the growing lignin network by participating in the radical polymerisation reaction.29”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.3 Lignin.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The ordering of the regenerated cellulose is reduced compared to the initial state and it is transformed into cellulose II.75,76”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It has been known for some time that 1-ethylpyridiniumchloride, [C 2 pyr]Cl, can dissolve cellulose.68”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [68] source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“This process uses toxic and highly flammable CS 2 and produces large amounts of waste products, which has fuelled the search for a more benign replacement.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Straws are usually, of all feedstocks, the least resistant to deconstruction.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The Lyocell process is a true dissolution process using NMO and an improvement in terms of health and environmental impact.66”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [66] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Perennial bioenergy grasses such as Miscanthus and switchgrass have the advantage that high yields per area of land and year can be achieved.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.1.5 Ultrastructure.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [38] source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Only a few solvents are able to dissolve the crystalline polymer fibrils, e.g.N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMO) 63 or concentrated phosphoric acid, 64 none of which are applied in lignocellulose processing.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Cellulose dissolution is an industrially attractive application of ionic liquids, due to good solubilities (5-20 wt%, depending on the ionic liquid and the conditions), the competitive properties of cellulose reprecipitated from the ionic liquid solutions, 73 the increased stability of ionic liquid cellulose solutions 74 and the low toxicity of certain relevant ionic liquids (for example, [C 2 C 1”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Virtually all pretreatment options induce chemical changes in both hemicellulose and lignin, for example polymer fragmentation, chemical transformation or functionalization, while the cellulose usually remains largely chemically unchanged (NB: structural modifications of cellulose have been observed).”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.2 Reactivity of lignin in ionic liquids.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [76] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The empirical Kamlet-Taft model 69c,d and the quantum mechanical COSMO-RS model 88 have been used most frequently to predict or explain the solubility of cellulose (and other biopolymers) in ionic liquids, while few literature data exist for Hansen solubility parameters of ionic liquids.89”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Several empirical and semi-empirical polarity scales have been used to explain and predict solubility of biomolecules and biopolymers in solvents, for example the Hansen solubility parameters, 21,85 COSMO-RS 86 and the Kamlet-Taft polarity parameters.87”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.2 The solubility of cellulose in ionic liquids
What the sources say
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“More strongly hydrogen bond-basic anions (Cl -, Br -and [HSO 4 ] -) resulted in higher yields of the cleavage products than weakly basic anions, as well as in different routes.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.2 Reactivity of lignin in ionic liquids.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [142] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The functional group of the anion determined the effect rather than its size, while the cation did not play a significant role.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.2 Reactivity of lignin in ionic liquids.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [134] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The main product was 2,6-dimethoxy-1,4-benzoquinone; vanillin, syringaldehyde and other less abundant oxidised aromatic fragments were also identified.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.2 Reactivity of lignin in ionic liquids.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [143] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“However, recovery of only around 50% of the bagasse feedstock and production of a pulp that appears to be highly enriched in cellulose suggests that removal of both lignin and hemicellulose is considerable with this ionic liquid.52”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The total time requirement was 3.5-5 h (0.5-1 h for the dissolution/acid hydrolysis and 3-4 h for the enzymatic hydrolysis) which is significantly shorter than enzymatic saccharification alone but with a similar selectivity.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [154] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other considerations are reactions of ionic liquids with the lignocellulose, which would also affect the recycling rate as well as the quality of the pulp, and dissolved impurities which may reduce the performance of the ionic liquid in subsequent cycles.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“It was concluded that macroreticulated resins functionalized with sulfonic groups (-SO 3 H) such as Amberlyst 15DRY, which have a large surface area, are compatible with viscous solutions and sufficiently acidic for the reaction to occur.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [152]
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Using corn stover as a substrate, the yield of glucose under optimised conditions was 70-80% and the HMF yield was 10% or less.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 146a
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The hydrolysis temperature was only 70 °C and the presence of the co-solvent accelerated the dissolution substantially, although hydrolysis was slower.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [150] source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It was shown that only the use of acids with a pK a < 1.0 resulted in appreciable hydrolysis, showing that strong acids need to be used to achieve fast hydrolysis in chloride ionic liquids.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [151] source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“This study suggested that the cellulose hydrolysis proceeds on the surface of the resin, while subsequent studies have shown that the acidic protons contained in the solid catalyst are released into the ionic liquid and that the hydrolysis rate is proportional to the H + concentration in the liquid phase.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This was at 50.5 wt% water content, where the effect of water on the ionic liquid is likely to be considerable.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditionalSingle case- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“A secondary hydrolysis in diluted ionic liquid increased the monomer yield to up to 30%, supporting the explanation that the cellulose after acidic dissolution in ionic liquids is mostly oligomeric.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 129a
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Ionic liquid treatment is accompanied by significant hemicellulose depolymerisation, 120,136 as are other deconstruction methods.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Other considerations are reactions of ionic liquids with the lignocellulose, which would also affect the recycling rate as well as the quality of the pulp, and dissolved impurities which may reduce the performance of the ionic liquid in subsequent cycles.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although the solubilisation was close to 100% at 120 °C within 2 h, the yield of monomeric sugars was low.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 129a
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“While several ionic liquids containing chloride anions were effective in generating glucose from cellulose, the ionic liquids [C 2 C 1 im][NO 3 ], [C 4 C 1 im][BF 4 ], [C 1 C 1 im][Me 2 PO 4 ] and [C 2 C 1 im][MeCO 2 ] did not result in the formation of detectable amounts of glucose.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 146a
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For the first two ionic liquids, it is suggested that their inability to dissolve the polymer inhibits access of the acid to the glycosidic bonds and thus prevents hydrolysis.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites 146a
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Before any thermal deconstruction of lignocellulosic biomass, a milling or grinding step is necessary.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although grinding costs are saved, the energy required for drying harvested biomass to 7-10% moisture, and thoroughly drying the ionic liquid, must be accounted for.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Regardless of how successfully the ionic liquid is separated from the cellulose, it is likely that some of the ionic liquid will pass into subsequent process operations.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Milling increases the surface area of the lignocellulosic substrate.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The particle size reduction process is an important target for optimisation, especially in the case of woody biomass.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The small number of papers in the literature that use the Ionosolv Process approach indicates that it is unlikely to have yet been optimised.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is likely due to the presence of mid-range nucleophilic, neutral or acidic anions in the ionic liquids employed by the Ionosolv Process; these seem to act as catalytic delignifiers and possibly reagents.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These solutions may contain ionic liquid decomposition products, biomass decomposition products and most likely both.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since the fractionation ability of an ionic liquid is dominated by the nature of the anion, it is likely that this will determine the anion selection.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, higher pulp recoveries were observed when the ionic liquid was reused, which could be due to less extensive lignin removal.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The filtrate will contain lignin and probably some hemicelluloses.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“During recycling, the ionic liquid is likely to experience a build-up of carbohydrate monomers and oligomers, furfurals, organic acids, lignin fragments, inorganic salts and other solutes that are released during the pretreatment.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The protic ionic liquids are also distillable and hence much more easily recycled than the ionic liquids with fully alkylated cations.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The use of distillable acid-base ionic liquids may be a solution to this problem, although distillation of the ionic liquid after each cycle is likely to be uneconomical.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the recovered ionic liquid does not need to be fully dried (as ca.20% water is required for the pretreatment step), this is still likely to be a highly energy intensive step and has the potential to be a process-limiting problem.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, the incorporation of ionic liquid components into lignin or cellulose pulp could hamper the economic viability of ionic liquid deconstruction by reducing the maximum recovery as well as the value of the recovered pulp and the lignin.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The design of less inhibitory ionic liquids could be beneficial, as extensive washing will worsen the process economics due to a large, possibly environmentally harmful waste water stream.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Notwithstanding this, reduction in the price of ionic liquids used for deconstruction of biomass is essential if this is to become commercial reality.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Rests on an assumption: Ionic liquids are the most expensive solvents currently under investigation for lignocellulose deconstruction.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This has yet to be studied in detail, but has the potential be a process-limiting problem.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The filtrate ( precipitation solvent + ionic liquid) contains dissolved lignin, some hemicelluloses and the organic extractives.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, other separation procedures, such as solvent extraction, will probably be used to minimize solute accumulation and to ensure the ionic liquid remains sufficiently clean for repeated recycling, with distillation only being used when this cleaning fails.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.6 Challenges for an ionic liquids based biorefinery
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The possibility of removing lignin with the ionic liquid and recovering a separate, possibly more valuable lignin fraction is also an attractive feature.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 2. Conclusionwhy use ionic liquids?
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A less frequently mentioned advantage of ionic liquids is their low volatility, making it possible to pretreat biomass at atmospheric pressure even at temperatures surpassing the boiling point of water, as well as the ability to handle a non-odorous and relatively safe liquor compared to volatile solvents or sulfide containing aqueous solutions.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 2. Conclusionwhy use ionic liquids?
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The energy costs of this drying have to be assessed and have the potential to be a process-limiting problem.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.7.2
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Lignocellulose is a composite material with cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin making up ca.90% of dry matter.
“It is a composite material, with three biopolymers, cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, making up ca.90% of the dry matter.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Lignocellulose contains up to 60-70 wt% sugars/carbohydrates but is not utilised for food production.
“It contains up to 60-70 wt% sugars/carbohydrates but is not utilised for food production.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Hemicellulose and lignin are covalently cross-linked in lignocellulose.
“Hemicellulose and lignin are not only entangled, but also covalently cross-linked.”
The paper relies on this without support.
High hydrogen bond basicity is associated with reduced ionic liquid stability.
“as it has been shown that high hydrogen bond basicity is associated with reduced ionic liquid stability.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Water is essential for stabilising the organic hydroxide salt, which would decompose upon drying.
“as the water is essential for stabilising the organic hydroxide salt, which would decompose upon drying.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The hemicellulose component in lignocellulosic biomass is 25-30% and large enough to be of significant economic value.
“The hemicellulose component in lignocellulosic biomass (25-30%) is large enough to be of significant economic value.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Currently most important fermentative organisms (e.g. yeast) are not yet able to utilise all hemicellulose sugars.
“Although currently most important fermentative organisms (e.g.yeast) are not yet able to utilise all hemicellulose sugars, this is likely to change in the near future by introduction of genetically engineered strains, 161 therefore high recovery of hemicellulose sugars is also desirable.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Raw biomass typically contains about 50% water and even thoroughly air-dried biomass typically contains around 5-10 wt% residual moisture.
“Raw biomass is wet, typically containing 50% water and even thoroughly airdried biomass typically contains around 5-10 wt% residual moisture.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Ionic liquids are the most expensive solvents currently under investigation for lignocellulose deconstruction.
“Ionic liquids are the most expensive solvents that are currently under investigation for lignocellulose deconstruction.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Acetate is a metabolic inhibitor of most yeast systems.
“Acetate is a proven metabolic inhibitor of most yeast systems.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The majority of biomass deconstruction experiments using [C2C1im][MeCO2] and [C4C1im][MeCO2] have been performed at temperatures greatly in excess of 90 °C.
“It is important to note that the majority of biomass deconstruction experiments using these ionic liquids have been performed at temperatures greatly in excess of this limit.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) assay is not specific for glucose nor for monomers.
“Studies using 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid (DNS) were not considered for this table, as this assay is not specific for glucose nor for monomers”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Carbon materials derived from biopolymers have made considerable progress in recent years, especially in the development of molecular sieves, as photocatalyst supports and adsorbents for the storage of natural gas.26,34,35”
From Sustainable hybrid photocatalysts: titania immobilized on carbon materials derived from renewable and biodegradable resources (2016) · cites this paper as [34]
In the citing paper
“Carbonization of the carefully designed polymer provides opportunities in controlling the pore size, pore volume and bulk density of the ensuing carbon, which are important characteristics in the aforementioned applications.26,34,35”
From Sustainable hybrid photocatalysts: titania immobilized on carbon materials derived from renewable and biodegradable resources (2016) · cites this paper as [34]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5 Lignocellulose deconstruction with ionic liquids
“Lignin removal was reported to be between 17% and 65%, while hemicellulose removal varied between 0% and 83%.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 2. Conclusionwhy use ionic liquids?
“| | 160 °C | 3 h | 85 | 69 | 77 | 138 |”
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 1.5.3 Simultaneous dissolution and depolymerisation of lignocellulosic biomass.
“They reported a precipitate yield of over 60 wt% of the lignin content of untreated Miscanthus after pretreatment with [C 4 C 1 im][HSO 4 ] water mixtures.”
§ Cutting-edge research for a greener sustainable future > 2. Conclusionwhy use ionic liquids?
“| [C 4 C 1 im][HSO 4 ] (20% water) [C 4 C 1 im][MeSO 4 ] a (20% water) | | 120 °C 120 °C | 22 h 26 h | Water Water | 47% 43% | 55 55 |”
Citations
Cites
Room-Temperature Ionic Liquids: Solvents for Synthesis and Catalysis. 2
Hallett, J. P., & Welton, T. (2011) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/cr1003248 · Cited by 12,638
Self-citationRoom-Temperature Ionic Liquids. Solvents for Synthesis and Catalysis
Welton, T. (1999) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/cr980032t · Cited by 11,942
Self-citationFeatures of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass
MOSIER, N. (2005) · Bioresource Technology · doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2004.06.025 · Cited by 6,251
The Path Forward for Biofuels and Biomaterials
Ragauskas, A. J., Williams, C. K., Davison, B. H., Britovsek, G., Cairney, J., Eckert, C. A., Frederick, W. J., Hallett, J. P., Leak, D. J., Liotta, C. L., et al. (2006) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1114736 · Cited by 5,741
Self-citationApplications of ionic liquids in the chemical industry
Plechkova, N. V., & Seddon, K. R. (2008) · Chem. Soc. Rev. · doi:10.1039/b006677j · Cited by 5,686
Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change
Searchinger, T., Heimlich, R., Houghton, R. A., Dong, F., Elobeid, A., Fabiosa, J., Tokgoz, S., Hayes, D., & Yu, T.-H. (2008) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1151861 · Cited by 4,888
Dissolution of Cellose with Ionic Liquids
Swatloski, R. P., Spear, S. K., Holbrey, J. D., & Rogers, R. D. (2002) · Journal of the American Chemical Society · doi:10.1021/ja025790m · Cited by 4,735
Boerjan, W., Ralph, J., & Baucher, M. (2003) · Annual Review of Plant Biology · doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.54.031902.134938 · Cited by 4,504
The Catalytic Valorization of Lignin for the Production of Renewable Chemicals
Zakzeski, J., Bruijnincx, P. C. A., Jongerius, A. L., & Weckhuysen, B. M. (2010) · Chemical Reviews · doi:10.1021/cr900354u · Cited by 4,468
Klamt, A. (1995) · The Journal of Physical Chemistry · doi:10.1021/j100007a062 · Cited by 4,184
Research works printed but not linked: 7
- Meng, 2012, e-Polymers, 028, 1
- King, 2011, Angew. Chem., Int. Ed., 50, 6301, 10.1002/anie.201100274 · DOI
- Gericke, 2011, Macromol. Mater. Eng., 296, 483, 10.1002/mame.201000330 · DOI
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Metadata
- Authors
- Brandt, A., Gräsvik, J., Hallett, J. P., & Welton, T.
- Affiliations
- Umeå University (SE)
- Imperial College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Welton, Tom
- Venue
- Green Chemistry
- Publisher
- Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 550
- ISSN
- 1463-9262 (ISSN-L)
- 1463-9270
- OpenAlex
- W2166219224
- Semantic Scholar
- 3bb1c838477a538886acfa02e851d8079e8c1051
- Cited by
- 1,557
- References
- 214
- Citations by year
- 2026: 61 · 2025: 92 · 2024: 81 · 2023: 101 · 2022: 115 · 2021: 159 · 2020: 154 · 2019: 141 · 2018: 130 · 2017: 164 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 113 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 30
- FWCI
- 41.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Green Chemistry (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EP/K014676/1)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Biofuel production and bioconversion
- Physical Sciences › Chemistry › Physical and Theoretical Chemistry › Ionic liquids properties and applications
- Physical Sciences › Chemical Engineering › Catalysis › Catalysis for Biomass Conversion
- Keywords
- ionic liquids, lignocellulosic biomass, biomass pretreatment, biomass deconstruction, biomass fractionation, process design
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