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Cited by 197TiO2 Photocatalysis and Solar CellsAdvanced Photocatalysis TechniquesMesoporous Materials and Catalysis

Sustainable hybrid photocatalysts: titania immobilized on carbon materials derived from renewable and biodegradable resources

Open access
Colmenares, Juan Carlos, Varma, Rajender S., Lisowski, Paweł·2016·Green Chemistry
DOI 10.1039/c6gc02477gPMC PMC7359876
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Abstract

The preparation, properties and heterogeneous photocatalytic applications of TiO 2 immobilized on carbon materials derived from earth-abundant, renewable and biodegradable agricultural residues and sea food waste resources are reviewed.

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Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review surveys the preparation, properties, and heterogeneous photocatalytic applications of TiO₂ immobilized on carbon materials derived from renewable, biodegradable resources such as lignocellulosic biomass, agricultural residues, and seafood waste. It argues that these sustainable TiO₂/carbon hybrids overcome key TiO₂ drawbacks—wide band gap, narrow light response, and difficult recovery—through synergistic adsorption and charge-separation effects.

Key findings

  • TiO₂/carbon synergy works mainly by carbon acting as an electron reservoir that conducts electrons away from photogenerated e⁻/h⁺ pairs, increasing charge-separation efficiency and activating O₂ to O⁻ ions.
  • Lignin-templated mesoporous TiO₂ reached a BET surface area of 165.8 m² g⁻¹ and pore volume of 0.312 cm³ g⁻¹; TiO₂/STARBON-800® showed no leaching after 240 min of phenol degradation, leaving only 3% of initial phenol on the surface versus 8.7% for STARBON+P25.
  • TiO₂/microcrystalline cellulose degraded nearly 90% of methylene blue in 4 h (first-order, k = 5.02 × 10⁻³ min⁻¹); TiO₂/bacterial cellulose had a surface area of 208.17 m² g⁻¹; TiO₂/cellulose whiskers showed a lowered band gap of 2.02 eV.
  • TiO₂/biochar removed 91% and mineralized 81% of sulfamethoxazole (5 g L⁻¹ catalyst, 6 h, pH 4), retaining 91% removal over three cycles; magnetic TiO₂/activated carbon achieved 70–90% mineralization of metoprolol tartrate over 10 consecutive runs.

Methods

  • Narrative/critical review (no primary experiments); it synthesizes published literature on TiO₂/carbon composites.
  • Covers carbon supports from biopolymers (lignin, cellulose, cellulose acetate, bacterial cellulose, starch/Starbon®, chitosan, wood, bamboo) and from agricultural/seafood residues (biochar, activated carbon and magnetic forms, charcoal, coal fly ash, eggshell, clamshell, fish scales).
  • Organizes evidence by support type, describing synthesis routes (sol-gel, hydrolysis precipitation, ultrasound-assisted impregnation, hydrothermal, dip-dry) and reported photocatalytic performance.

Limitations

  • The paper states that research on optimizing these photocatalysts "is still in its infancy," with challenges in establishing accurate structure–property relationships.
  • It lists unresolved issues: rational/optimal material design, understanding of interphase interactions (especially under solar light), energy-efficient processes, feedstock and production costs, carbon leaching from hybrid photocatalysts, and environmental impact concerns.
  • Evident from the text: as a review, it reports no new experimental data, and several cited performance figures come from other groups' studies rather than the authors' own work.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1039/c6gc02477g

Cites

Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 177 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisenone given

    All surface-modified TiO2 cellulose nanocomposites remained colourless even after several weeks of exposure to sunlight.

    “Conversely, all the surface modified TiO 2 cellulose nanocomposites remained colourless even after several weeks of exposure to sunlight.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    Carbonization of a carefully designed polymer provides opportunities to control the pore size, pore volume and bulk density of the ensuing carbon.

    “Carbonization of the carefully designed polymer provides opportunities in controlling the pore size, pore volume and bulk density of the ensuing carbon, which are important characteristics in the aforementioned applications.26,34,35”
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  • Premisecitation

    Zeng et al. prepared TiO2/cellulose composite films that provided a cavity for the creation of TiO2 nanoparticles and hydroxyl groups for their immobilization.

    “On similar lines, Zeng et al. 51 prepared TiO 2 /cellulose composite films, which provided a cavity for the creation of TiO 2 nanoparticles, and hydroxyl groups for their immobilization.”
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  • Premisecitation

    STARBON-800® enhances the photoelectron conversion of TiO2 when compared to Norit and graphene oxide supports by reducing the recombination of photo-generated electron-hole pairs.

    “STARBON-800® enhances the photoelectron conversion of TiO 2 when compared to Norit and graphene oxide supports by reducing the recombination of photo-generated electron-hole pairs.48”
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  • Interpretationreasoning

    TiO2/cellulose nanocomposites are considered forerunners for applications including self-cleaning materials and air purification filters because of their compatibility with hydrophobic or hydrophilic polymer matrices.

    “Therefore, TiO 2 /cellulose nanocomposites, in view of their compatibility with polymer matrices (hydrophobic or hydrophilic) are considered as forerunners for several applications, including self-cleaning materials and air purification filters.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 23
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2

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    Premisecitation

    Compared to conventional resources, carbon materials possess outstanding properties such as hydrophobic surfaces, high surface area, large pore volume, chemical inertness, good thermal and mechanical stability, easy handling and low cost of manufacture.

    “When compared to conventional resources, carbon materials possess outstanding properties such as hydrophobic surfaces, high surface area, large pore volume, chemical inertness, good thermal and mechanical stability, easy handling and low cost of manufacture, that will enable their enhanced use in energyconversion and storage.[1][2][3][4]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [1][2][3][4]

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    Premisereasoning

    Calcined TiO2 particles prepared with lignin have a finer crystallite size, a mesoporous structure and are well separated, avoiding grain growth.

    “In view of the interactions between hydroxyl groups of lignin and the surface hydroxyl groups of the TiO 2 precursor, the calcined TiO 2 particles have a finer crystallite size, a mesoporous structure and are well separated, to avoid grain growth (Fig. 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premiseown data

    Distinct properties were realized for cellulosic nanocomposites depending on the nature of the interlayer: hydrophilic TiO2/SiO2/cellulose composites were generated by hydrolysis of TEOS, while OTMS- and PTMS-treated fibres showed hydrophobic characteristics.

    “Distinct properties were realised for the cellulosic nanocomposites determined by the nature of the interlayer; while hydrophilic TiO 2 /SiO 2 /cellulose composites were generated by hydrolysis of TEOS, the OTMS and PTMS treated fibres (TiO 2 / OTMS/cellulose and TiO 2 /PTMS/cellulose) showed hydrophobic characteristics.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    TiO2 is activated directly by UV light irradiation of photon energy higher than the band gap energy of titania, forming e-/h+ pairs.

    “TiO 2 is activated directly by UV light irradiation of photon energy higher than the band gap energy of titania, forming e -/ h + pairs (Fig. 1a).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The TiO2/MC nanocomposite benefits from synergistic physical and/or chemical interactions between organic and inorganic components and could be utilized as a photocatalyst to degrade hazardous contaminants and in the synthesis of transition-metal carbide materials.

    “The TiO 2 /MC nanocomposite benefits from the synergistic effect of the physical and/or chemical interactions between the organic and inorganic components and therefore could be utilized as a photocatalyst to degrade hazardous contaminants via the formation of films that have good mechanical and UV-shielding properties and in the synthesis of transition-metal carbide materials.50”
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    Premisecitation

    Cellulose has multiple hydroxyl groups on one long chain that form hydrogen bonds with other oxygen atoms on the neighboring chain.

    “It has multiple hydroxyl groups on one long chain to form hydrogen bonds with other oxygen atoms on the neighboring chain.40”
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Thermal treatment at 400 °C in static air preserves a pure and highly crystalline anatase phase (ca. 30 nm), leading to a reduction in the electron-hole recombination rate at the Starbon surface.

    “These conditions preserve a pure and highly crystalline anatase phase (ca.30 nm) leading to a reduction in the electron-hole recombination rate at the Starbon surface.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The as-synthesized lignin-templated TiO2 composite had a BET surface area of 165.8 m2 g-1 and a pore volume of 0.312 cm3 g-1.

    “as-synthesized composite had a BET surface area of 165.8 m 2 g -1 and a pore volume of 0.312 cm 3 g -1 .”
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    Premisecitation

    The large band gap energy of TiO2 (3.2 eV) limits its use exclusively to the ultraviolet region of the solar spectrum, which accounts for only about 3-5% of solar energy.

    “First, the large band gap energy of TiO 2 (3.2 eV) limits its use exclusively to the ultraviolet region of the solar spectrum which accounts for only a very small fraction of the solar energy (about 3-5%). [9][10]0][11][12][13]”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premiseown data

    After sunlight irradiation, the nanocomposite containing untreated cellulose fibres acquired a yellow colour, indicating partial degradation of cellulose fibres.

    “Subsequently, after sunlight irradiation, the nanocomposite containing untreated fibres acquired a yellow colour indicating the partial degradation of cellulose fibres.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premiseown data

    TiO2 is strongly anchored to the STARBON-800® structure, as no leaching is observed even after 240 min of photocatalytic degradation of phenol.

    “TiO 2 is strongly anchored to the STARBON-800® structure as no leaching is observed even after 240 min of photocatalytic degradation of phenol (Fig. 5b);”
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    Premisecitation

    Petroleum-derived polymers used as supports for TiO2 (e.g., HDPE, PANI, RF) have drawbacks including nonrenewability, higher costs, and additional contribution to pollution.

    “Petroleum-derived polymers, when used as a support for TiO 2 (e.g.high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 23 polyaniline (PANI), 24 resorcinol-formaldehyde (RF) 25 ), have drawbacks such as nonrenewability, higher costs, and additional contribution to pollution.26”
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    Premisecitation

    The photo-bleaching of methylene blue by TiO2/MC obeyed first-order reaction kinetics with a rate constant of 5.02 × 10-3 min-1.

    “this obeyed first-order reaction kinetics with reaction constants of 5.02 × 10 -3 min -1 .”
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    Premisecitation

    The free holes in TiO2 photocatalysis have strong oxidation power, while oxygen radicals are secondary products of the electron reduction process.

    “The free holes have strong oxidation power, while the oxygen radicals are secondary products of the electron reduction process; 32”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Starbon® synthesis avoids the use of templates and can be performed at a temperature of choice (e.g., 200-1000 °C).

    “their synthesis avoids the use of templates and can be performed at a temperature of choice (e.g., 200-1000 °C).”
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    Premisecitation

    TiO2 is an important material that underpins the development of critical renewable energy and environmental technologies such as photocatalytic water/air purification, hydrogen production from water splitting, and high-efficiency/low-cost solar cells.

    “The semiconductor photocatalyst, TiO 2 , is an important material that underpins the development of critical renewable energy and environmental technologies such as photocatalytic water/air purification, hydrogen production from water splitting, and high-efficiency/low-cost solar cells.31”
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    Premisereasoning

    After 240 minutes of reaction, only 3% of the initial concentration of phenol remained on Starbon surface, compared with 8.7% for STARBON+P25.

    “(only 3% of the initial concentration of phenol still stayed on Starbon surface after 240 minutes of reaction in comparison with 8.7% for STARBON+P25).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Abundant hydroxyl groups on the cellulose fiber surface adsorb TiO2+ first as nucleation sites, and then TiO2 nuclei form via hydrolysis-condensation and grow into TiO2 nanocrystals.

    “abundant hydroxyl groups on the CF surface adsorb TiO 2+ first as nucleation sites and then TiO 2 nuclei are formed via hydrolysis-condensation which subsequently grow into TiO 2 nanocrystals.”
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    • cites [58] source

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    Premisecitation

    TiO2/cellulose fiber (CF) composite showed enhanced adsorption capacity, good regenerability and selectivity for lead (Pb2+) removal.

    “TiO 2 /CF composite showed enhanced adsorption capacity, good regenerability and selectivity for lead (Pb 2+ ) removal.”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wood's natural hierarchical structure is composed of well-oriented microfibers and tracheids for water, ions, and oxygen transportation during metabolism, and multiscale natural fibers from wood have unique optical properties applicable to optoelectronics and photonic devices.

    “Wood's natural hierarchical structure is composed of welloriented microfibers and tracheids for water, ions, and oxygen transportation during metabolism; more importantly, multiscale natural fibers from wood have unique optical properties applicable to different kinds of optoelectronics and photonic devices.86,87”
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    Premisecitation

    Chitosan is very sensitive to pH and can either form a gel or dissolve depending on pH.

    “However, chitosan is very sensitive to pH as it can either form a gel or dissolve depending on the pH values.[59][60][61][62][63][64][65]”
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    Premisecitation

    BC has good mechanical properties, biocompatibility, elevated tensile strength, a degree of polymerization up to 8000, crystallinity of 70-80%, water content of 99%, and retention capability.

    “BC embodies several distinguished structural features and qualities such as good mechanical properties, biocompatibility, elevated tensile strength, a higher degree of polymerization (up to 8000), high crystallinity (of 70-80%), high water content (99%) and retention capability.77”
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    Premisecitation

    Chitosan has disadvantages including unsatisfactory mechanical properties, severe shrinkage, deformation after drying, solubility under acidic conditions, compressibility at high operating pressure, and can shield and block UV radiation with degradation of textiles and leather.

    “Additionally, chitosan has some disadvantages such as unsatisfactory mechanical properties, severe shrinkage, deformation after drying, solubility under acidic conditions, compressibility at high operating pressure and can shield and block UV radiation with degradation of textiles and leather.59,65,66”
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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The cell wall components are obstructed from access to oxygen and complete combustion is delayed, thus enhancing the thermal stability of the wood.

    “Consequently, the cell wall components are obstructed from access to oxygen and complete combustion is delayed, thus enhancing the thermal stability of the wood.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chitosan exhibits antibacterial activity, film forming ability and good drug delivery potential.

    “Furthermore, chitosan exhibits antibacterial activity, film forming ability and a good drug delivery potential. 65”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Such TiO2/cellulose hybrids could be used as reinforcing fibers in a polymer matrix, particularly when light-barrier materials are sought.

    “Such hybrids could be used as reinforcing fibers in a polymer matrix, particularly when light-barrier materials are sought.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The modified wood possesses improved thermal and mechanical properties and dimensional stability with increasing load of inorganic TiO2 gels, as ultrasonic treatment facilitates chemical reactions between liquid and solid phases.

    “The modified wood possesses improved the thermal and mechanical properties and dimensional stability with increasing load of inorganic TiO 2 gels, as ultrasonic treatment facilitates chemical reactions between liquid and solid phases 88,89”
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    Premisecitation

    Due to paucity of hydrogen bonds and lower crystallinity, cellulose acetate has enhanced solubility in a wide range of organic solvents like acetone, DMF, and DMSO.

    “Further, due to paucity of hydrogen bonds and its lower crystallinity, its solubility in a wide range of organic solvents like acetone, dimethylformamide (DMF), dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) etc. is enhanced.73”
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    Premisecitation

    Cellulose acetate (CA) is biodegradable, nontoxic and biocompatible and can be prepared by simple esterification of cellulose, which is abundant in agricultural waste such as straw and biomass residues.

    “Cellulose acetate (CA) is biodegradable, nontoxic and biocompatible and can be prepared by simple esterification of cellulose, which is abundant in agricultural waste such as straw and biomass residues.[69][70][71][72]”
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    Interpretationreasoning

    The reusability of SICT would simplify operating steps and reduce associated costs, facilitating its practical application in wastewater treatment for environmental organic pollutants.

    “The reusability of SICT would be beneficial for simplification of the operating steps and the associated cost reduction would facilitate its practical application in wastewater treatment for environmental organic pollutants.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ultrasound provides a good distribution of TiO2 throughout the wood matrix, wherein these gels are deposited in the lumen by adhesion to cell walls.

    “ultrasound provides a good distribution of TiO 2 throughout the wood matrix wherein these gels are deposited in the lumen by adhesion to cell walls.”
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    Premisecitation

    The chemical stability of chitosan is unsatisfactory because abundant free amines, with a pKa of ∼6.5, can be protonated, culminating in hydro-solubility under acidic conditions.

    “Although chitosan has shown promise as a biosorbent, the chemical stability of chitosan is unsatisfactory because the abundant free amines, with a pK a value of ∼6.5, can be protonated culminating in hydro-solubility under acidic conditions.67,68”
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    Premisecitation

    TiO2/cellulose whisker nanoparticles exhibited quantum size effects and a lower band gap energy (2.02 eV) and displayed promising activity for photodegradation of methyl orange under weak UV light irradiation (4.3-41 mW cm-2).

    “TiO 2 /cellulose whisker nanoparticles exhibited quantum size effects and a lower band gap energy (2.02 eV) and displayed promising activity for the photodegradation of a methyl orange solution under weak UV light irradiation (4.3-41 mW cm -2 ).”
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    Premisecitation

    The TiO2/BC hybrid nanofibers are uniform and well-defined and comprise large quantities of oriented TiO2 nanoparticle arrays implanted on the BC nanofibers with diameters in the 4.3-8.5 nm range.

    “well-defined nanofibers comprise large quantities of oriented TiO 2 nanoparticle arrays implanted on the BC nanofibers with diameters in the 4.3-8.5 nm range.”
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bacterial cellulose (BC) is produced by acetic acid bacteria Gluconobacter xylinum and is obtainable in a pure form that requires no intensive processing to remove lignin, pectin and hemicellulose.

    “Bacterial cellulose (BC), produced by acetic acid bacteria Gluconobacter xylinum, is obtainable in a pure form which requires no intensive processing to remove undesirable impurities and contaminants such as lignin, pectin and hemicellulose.75,76”
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    Premisereasoning

    The amino groups of chitosan can be easily cationized, which helps adsorb anionic dyes strongly via electrostatic attraction in acidic media.

    “The amino groups of chitosan can be easily cationized which help adsorb anionic dyes strongly via electrostatic attraction in acidic media.”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Cellulose acetate possesses beneficial mechanical strength that facilitates its processing into films, membranes, and fibers from either melts or solutions.

    “Cellulose acetate possess beneficial mechanical strength that facilitates its processing into films, membranes, and fibers from either melts or solutions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Regenerated cellulose films and fibers in the wet state possess a porous structure, and their hydroxyl groups assist the creation of inorganic nanoparticles in the cellulose matrix.

    “It is worth noting that the regenerated cellulose films and fibers in the wet state possess a porous structure and the hydroxyl groups assist the creation of inorganic nanoparticles in the cellulose matrix.[53][54][55][56]”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chitosan is the next most abundant natural polysaccharide after cellulose and comprises the exoskeleton of insects and crustaceans and cell walls of fungi.

    “Chitosan ( poly-β-(1→4)-2-amino-2-deoxy-D-glucose), obtained by N-deacetylation (usually over 75%) of chitin, is the next most abundant natural polysaccharide after cellulose (Fig. 6) 59 and comprises the exoskeleton of insects and crustaceans (seafood processing industries' waste products) and cell walls of fungi.60,61”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chitosan as a support for TiO2 has advantages: easy recovery and multiple reuseability; selectivity for target pollutants; degradation and complete mineralization of organics; and synergistic photocatalysis-adsorption lowering charge carrier recombination.

    “In this context, chitosan as a support for TiO 2 has following advantages: (a) easy recovery and multiple reuseability; (b) selectivity for target pollutants; (c) degradation and complete mineralization of organics; and (d) synergistic effect of the photocatalysis-adsorption processes of TiO 2 /chitosan leading to lowering of the charge carrier recombination.68”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Chitosan contains a large number of amino and hydroxyl functional groups and possesses excellent adsorption ability for heavy metals, dyestuffs, and pathogens and can be easily functionalized.

    “Chitosan contains a large number of amino (-NH 2 ) and hydroxyl (-OH) functional groups and possesses excellent adsorption ability for a wide variety of environmental pollutants such as heavy metals, 62 dyestuffs, 62 and pathogens 63 and can be easily functionalized.64”
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TiO2 nanoparticles in TiO2/BC hybrid fibers respond to the applied voltage of an EFM tip as strong electrostatic dipole-dipole interactions are generated by hydrogen bonding connections between hydroxyl groups in cellulose and their counterparts in the inorganic oxide, eliciting a high electric dipole moment of TiO2 nanoparticles.

    “TiO 2 nanoparticles respond to the applied voltage (-3, 0 and 3 V) of the electrostatic force microscopy (EFM) tip as the strong electrostatic dipole-dipole interactions are generated by hydrogen bonding connections between the hydroxyl groups in the cellulose and their counterparts in the inorganic oxide, thus eliciting a high electric dipole moment of TiO 2 nanoparticles in the TiO 2 /BC hybrid”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Hydroxyl groups of cellulose preferentially adsorb onto a certain crystallographic plane of TiO2 due to anisotropy in adsorption stability.

    “Meanwhile, the hydroxyl groups of cellulose would preferentially adsorb onto a certain crystallographic plane of TiO 2 due to anisotropy in adsorption stability.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation

    A hydrothermal deposition of TiO2 particles on spruce (Picea Abies) wood has been developed for the preparation of TiO2/wood composites at 75 °C in up to 1 h, serving the dual purpose of wood impregnation and covering the porous inner and outer surface of wood with rutile particles as discerned by ATR-FTIR and Raman subtraction spectra.

    “A similar hydrothermal deposition of TiO 2 particles on spruce (Picea Abies) wood has been developed for the preparation of TiO 2 /wood composites at 75 °C in a relatively short time (up to 1 h) 91 that serves the dual purpose of wood impregnation and covering the porous inner and outer surface of wood with rutile particles as discerned by ATR-FTIR and Raman subtraction spectra;”
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    Premisecitation

    Photocatalytic oxidation of SMX using TiO2/biochar under the selected catalyst loading and irradiation time (5 g L-1 of TiO2/biochar, 6 h, pH 4) resulted in the highest removal and mineralization (91% and 81%, respectively) of SMX with negligible toxicity and accumulation of non-toxic products in water.

    “It should be pointed out that photocatalytic oxidation of SMX using TiO 2 / biochar under the selected catalyst loading and irradiation time (5 g L -1 of TiO 2 /biochar, 6 h, pH 4) resulted in the highest removal and mineralization (91%, 81%, respectively) of SMX with negligible toxicity and accumulation of non-toxic products in water;”
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    Premisecitation

    Kim and Kan developed surface-modified biochar (corn cob carbonized at 600 °C) and used a sol-gel method to remove sulfamethoxazole (SMX) in water by photocatalytic oxidation using a biochar-supported TiO2 photocatalyst under UV light irradiation (15 W UV-C, 254 nm).

    “Kim and Kan 111 developed surfacemodified biochar (corn cob carbonized at 600 °C) and followed a simple sol-gel method to remove sulfamethoxazole (SMX) in water by photocatalytic oxidation using the biocharsupported TiO 2 photocatalyst under UV light irradiation (15 W UV-C, 254 nm).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [111] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Magnetically separable TiO2/MAC photocatalysts with high activity under solar illumination were synthesized and deployed for photocatalytic ozonation of metoprolol tartrate (MTP) in aqueous solution (50 mg L-1) with high levels of photocatalytic mineralization (70-90%).

    “Recently, magnetically separable TiO 2 /MAC photocatalysts with high activity under solar illumination were synthesized and deployed for photocatalytic ozonation of metoprolol tartrate (MTP) in aqueous solution (50 mg L -1 ) with high levels of photocatalytic mineralization (70-90%); 145”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [145] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    •OH may attack aromatic ring sites in compounds, resulting in ring-opened products yielding CO2/H2O and other degradation products; breakdown of the benzene ring and subsequent mineralization to CO2 and H2O could be envisaged by the decrease in TOC during the photocatalytic process.

    “Additionally, • OH may attack aromatic ring sites in compounds resulting in the formation of ring-opened (Fig. 13) products yielding CO 2 /H 2 O and other degradation products; 136,137 breakdown of the benzene ring and its subsequent mineralization leading to CO 2 and H 2 O could be envisaged by the decrease in TOC during the photocatalytic process.138”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [136] source

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    • cites [137] source

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    • cites [138] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Adsorption could generally enhance the photocatalytic rate, but when the adsorption rate is much faster than the pollutant transfer rate, the photocatalytic kinetics are determined by the reaction rate on the TiO2 surface.

    “Nevertheless, the adsorption could generally enhance the photocatalytic rate but when the adsorption rate is much faster than the pollutant (e.g.methyl orange molecule) transfer rate, the photocatalytic kinetics are determined by the reaction rate on the TiO 2 surface.134”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [134]

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    Premisecitation

    Additional defect sites on TiO2 have been generated, which can increase the transition probability of e-/h+ and decrease e-/h+ recombination on the TiO2 surface.

    “Additional defect sites on TiO 2 have been generated, 139 which can increase the transition probability of e -/h + and decrease e -/h + recombination on the TiO 2 surface.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [139] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wood materials with UV-resistant ability have been successfully fabricated by one-pot hydrothermal fabrication of rutile TiO2 submicrospheres on the wood surface, as attested by ATR-FTIR spectra.

    “wood materials with UV-resistant ability have been successfully fabricated by one-pot hydrothermal fabrication of rutile TiO 2 submicrospheres on the wood surface 90 as attested by ATR-FTIR spectra.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [90] source

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    Premisecitation

    The TiO2/AC composite has been used in conjunction with microwave-enhanced photodegradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) for destruction of the conjugated structure, which was much faster than photocatalytic degradation methods.

    “The TiO 2 /AC composite has been used in conjunction with microwave (MW)-enhanced photodegradation of Rhodamine B (RhB) for the destruction of the conjugated structure, which was much faster than the photocatalytic degradation methods.118”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    Vacuum and ultrasonic methods both enhance the dimensional stability of wood by preventing the formation of cracks, retarding combustion of the wood matrix and diminishing biological attack.

    “vacuum and ultrasonic methods both enhance the dimensional stability of wood, by preventing the formation of cracks, retarding combustion of the wood matrix and diminishing biological attack.87,91”
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    • cites [87] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Activated carbon adsorbs pollutants and then releases them onto the surface of TiO2, delivering a higher concentration of pollutants around the TiO2 than that available in the bulk solution and culminating in an enhanced degradation rate of the pollutants.

    “Furthermore, activated carbon adsorbs pollutants and then releases them onto the surface of TiO 2 thus delivering a higher concentration of pollutants around the TiO 2 than that available in the bulk solution culminating in an enhanced degradation rate of the pollutants;”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [113] source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Activated carbon is a porous, amorphous solid carbon material derived mainly from carbonaceous or plant-based (lignocellulosic) materials and can be used as a support for TiO2.

    “Activated carbon (AC), also termed active carbon, activated charcoal, or activated coal, is a porous, amorphous solid carbon material derived mainly from carbonaceous or plantbased (lignocellulosic) materials such as coconut shell, [113][114][115][116][117][118][119] activated charcoal, 120 sawdust of Tabebuia pentaphyla wood, 121-124 pine sawdust, 125 beech sawdust, 126 peach stones, 127 almond”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [113] source

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    • cites [117] source

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    • cites [119] source

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    • cites [121] source

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    • cites [122] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    AC can function as a titania photosensitizer by injecting electrons into the conduction band of titania and triggering the photocatalytic formation of very reactive •OH radicals responsible for the degradation of dyes such as Basic Red 18 and Basic Red 46.

    “AC can also function as a titania photosensitizer by injecting electrons into the conduction band of titania and triggering the photocatalytic formation of very reactive • OH radicals which are responsible for the degradation of the dyes (e.g.Basic Red 18 and Basic Red 46).130”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [130] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims. The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    The TiO2 surface becomes more hydrophobic under MW irradiation, which increases the probability of RhB contact with the TiO2 surface.

    “TiO 2 surface becomes more hydrophobic under MW irradiation, 125”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [125] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The synergistic effect could be attributed not only to a proper surface area but also to the presence of a low surface concentration of acidic oxygenated functionalities, particularly carboxylic groups.

    “In addition, the synergistic effect could be attributed not only to a proper surface area but also to the presence of a low surface concentration of acidic oxygenated functionalities, particularly carboxylic groups.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [122] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The obtained TiO2/biochar composite showed a much higher adsorption of SMX than commercial TiO2 powder due to hydrophobic interaction (carbon π-π interaction) between the biochar and SMX.

    “Surprisingly, the obtained composite showed a much higher adsorption of SMX than the commercial TiO 2 powder due to the hydrophobic interaction (carbon π-π interaction) between the biochar and SMX.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [111] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The presence of titania particles on the hydrothermally treated wood surface exhibited vibrational bands of TiO2-wood interphase interactions, confirming the anchoring sites of titanium ions on hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin.

    “the presence of titania particles on the hydrothermally treated wood surface exhibited vibrational bands of TiO 2 -wood interphase interactions confirming the anchoring sites of titanium ions on hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin.92”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [92] source

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    Premisecitation

    In solution, the temperature of water and AC increases at different rates under MW irradiation due to in-core heating facilitated by MW energy, which could generate locally higher temperature in some micro-surfaces of the AC particles compared to the water bulk.

    “In solution, the temperature of water and AC increases at different rates under MW irradiation due to in-core heating facilitated by MW energy which could generate locally higher temperature in some micro-surfaces of the AC particles compared to the water bulk.141”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Three cycles of photocatalytic reactions using the same recycled catalyst resulted in efficient removal of SMX (91%), confirming the high stability of the biochar-supported TiO2.

    “three cycles of photocatalytic reactions using the same recycled catalyst resulted in the efficient removal of SMX (91%) confirming the high stability of the biochar-supported TiO”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [111] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Biochar is produced by thermal decomposition of a wide range of carbon-rich biomass materials including woody materials, agricultural residues such as sugarcane bagasse, livestock manure, and remnants after moderate temperature (350-700 °C) pyrolysis and carbonification of biomass in a reactor with little or no available air.

    “Biochar has been considered as a potential surrogate for activated carbon and is produced by thermal decomposition (e.g., slow pyrolysis, fast pyrolysis, hydrothermal carbonization (HTC), flash carbonization, torrefaction and gasification) [93][94][95] of a wide range of carbon-rich biomass materials that includes woody materials, agricultural residues such as sugarcane bagasse, 96 livestock”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [93] source

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    • cites [94] source

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    • cites [95] source

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    • cites [96] source

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    • cites [97] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Dávila-Jiménez et al. prepared a series of TiO2/carbon composite materials from carbonized avocado kernels and sols of TiO2; their short preparation in fewer steps uses carbon with acidic groups that favors interaction with TiO2.

    “Recently, Dávila-Jiménez et al. 156 prepared a series of TiO 2 / carbon composite materials from carbonized avocado kernels and sols of TiO 2 ; their short preparation in fewer steps uses carbon with acidic groups that favors the interaction with TiO 2 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [156] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A TiO2/bamboo charcoal composite made by a dip-dry method is a porous adsorptive material with a high specific surface area (359.8 m2 g-1), pore volume (0.317 cm3 g-1) and average pore diameter (3.526 nm).

    “A TiO 2 /bamboo charcoal composite made by a dipdry method is a porous adsorptive material which has a high specific surface area (359.8 m 2 g -1 ), pore volume (0.317 cm 3 g -1 ) and average pore diameter (3.526 nm).154”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [154] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The adsorption is reversible, and the dye can be partially recovered by desorption, which can be advantageous for artisanal carpeting effluents.

    “Interestingly, the adsorption is reversible, and the dye can be partially recovered by desorption, which can be advantageous in the case of artisanal carpeting effluents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [158] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Porous bamboo charcoal powder embedded in the matrix of TiO2 particles has facilitated dye absorption and the generation of electrons during exposure to light.

    “Porous bamboo charcoal powder embedded in the matrix of TiO 2 particles has facilitated dye absorption and the generation of electrons during exposure to light.155”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [155] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Heterogeneous photocatalysis on biochar-based materials for methylene blue photodegradation under visible light (metal halide lamp) has been reported, wherein carbon-based materials induce enhancements in the photocatalytic environmental remediation of polluted water and air.

    “An ecofriendly heterogeneous photocatalysis on biochar-based materials for methylene blue (MB) photodegradation under visible light (metal halide lamp) has been reported 112 wherein C-based materials induce enhancements in the photocatalytic environmental remediation of polluted water ( phenol, halophenols, herbicides, dyes, azo-dyes, among others) and air (toluene, 2-propanol, among others)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [112] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Wood charcoal is cheaper than AC because it does not need an activation process and has often been used for phenol adsorption.

    “Wood charcoal is cheaper than AC because it doesn't need an activation process and has often been used for phenol adsorption.152”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [152] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Antonio-Cisneros et al. immobilized TiO2 on carbon from residues of the plant Manihot, and the ensuing composite eliminated nearly 100% of the dye upon UV irradiation under optimal conditions.

    “Antonio-Cisneros et al. 157 immobilized TiO 2 on carbon emanating from residues of the plant Manihot, and this ensuing composite eliminated nearly 100% of the dye upon UV irradiation under optimal conditions;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sorption of organic contaminants on biochar occurs by pore-filling, diffusion and partitioning, surface hydrophobic and hydrophilic interactions, aromatic and cation-π interactions, electrostatic interactions, and hydrogen bonding, or by a simultaneous occurrence of these mechanisms.

    “occurs by: (a) pore-filling mechanisms (contributed by the majority of the surface area of biochar); (b) diffusion and partitioning mechanisms (effects of electrostatic interactions on the diffusion and equilibrium partitioning); (c) surface hydrophobic and hydrophilic inter-actions”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [107] source

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    • cites [108] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bamboo is vulnerable to attack by fungi and termites on account of its inherent hygroscopicity and is therefore prone to lose its dimensional stability.

    “However, bamboo is vulnerable to attack by fungi and termites on account of its inherent hygroscopicity and therefore, prone to lose its dimensional stability.148”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [148] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The uptake abilities of scales from different fish species should be similar because most fish scales contain significant portions of organic protein (collagen), and the structure of collagen contains functional groups such as phosphate, carboxyl, amine and amide that are implicated in the biosorption process.

    “The uptake abilities of scales from different fish species should be similar because most fish scales contain significant portions of organic protein (collagen), and the structure of collagen contains alluring functional groups, such as phosphate, carboxyl, amine and amide, that are implicated in the biosorption process.186”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The cost of preparation and the sources of environment pollution can be reduced by using CFA as support.

    “the cost of preparation and the sources of environment pollution can be reduced”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    Visible light-induced hydrogen photoproduction under solar irradiation is an example of photocatalytic energy storage by carbon-supported materials.

    “visible light-induced hydrogen photoproduction under solar irradiation is yet another outstanding example of photocatalytic energy storage by carbonsupported materials.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Fly ash from coal, oil and biomass combustion are major contributors to solid waste currently discarded in landfills or dumped at sea.

    “Fly ash from coal, oil and biomass combustion are major contributors to the solid waste which is currently discarded in landfills or dumped at sea. 159”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Coal fly ash (CFA) is a valuable and desirable additive to cement concrete because of its spherical shape and pozzolanic properties.

    “Coal fly ash (CFA) is a valuable and desirable additive to cement concrete because of its spherical shape and pozzolanic properties.160,161”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [160] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Microspherical CFA particles are easy to precipitate in water, so photocatalysts supported on CFA are easy to recycle from aqueous solution after the reaction.

    “the microspherical CFA particles are easy to precipitate in water, so photocatalysts supported on CFA are easy to recycle from aqueous solution after the reaction”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In other domains, coal fly ash is considered a forerunner for several applications in adsorption, material synthesis such as zeolites, geopolymers, ceramics, and as a catalyst support.

    “In other domains, coal fly ash is considered as a forerunner for several applications in adsorption, 162-164 material synthesis such as zeolites, [165][166][167] geopolymers, 168-170 ceramics, 171,172 and as a catalyst support.[173][174][175]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 9 sources checked
    • cites [162] source

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    • cites [163] source

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    • cites [164] source

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    • cites [165] source

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    • cites [166] source

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    • cites [167] source

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    • cites [168] source

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    • cites [169] source

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    • cites [170] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Nature-based biomaterials like fish scales are frequently used as adsorbents in biosorption processes due to their high binding capacities.

    “Basically, nature-based biomaterials like fish scales are frequently used as adsorbents in biosorption processes due to their high binding capacities.185”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [185] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Biotemplated synthesis of TiO2/wood charcoal composites developed for synergistic removal of bisphenol A (BPA) by adsorption and photocatalytic degradation displayed extraordinary adsorption ability for hydrophobic BPA and good photocatalytic activity (80% and 78%).

    “Biotemplated synthesis of TiO 2 / wood charcoal composites developed for the synergistic removal of bisphenol A (BPA) by adsorption and photocatalytic degradation is a recent example; 151 they displayed extraordinary adsorption ability for hydrophobic BPA and good photocatalytic activity (80% and 78%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [151] source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    This photocatalyst was easily separable due to its magnetic properties, and its reusability and stability were successfully demonstrated in a series of 10 consecutive photocatalytic ozonation runs.

    “This photocatalyst was easily separable due to its magnetic properties, and its reusability and stability was successfully demonstrated in a series of 10 consecutive photocatalytic ozonation runs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [145] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Charcoal generally refers to the carbonaceous residue of wood, cellulose, bamboo, coconut shells or various industrial wastes left behind after incomplete combustion of organic matter in the absence of oxygen; it usually consists of carbon atoms, heteroatoms (mainly hydrogen and oxygen) and mineral matter (usually given as ash content).

    “The term charcoal generally refers to the carbonaceous residue of wood, cellulose, bamboo, coconut shells or various industrial wastes left behind after incomplete combustion of organic matter in the absence of oxygen; 151 usually it consists of carbon atoms, heteroatoms (mainly hydrogen and oxygen) and mineral matter (usually given as ash content).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [151] source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    When exposed to an outdoor environment, unprotected bamboo shows bad decay resistance and is susceptible to attacks by fungi and insects, and degradation by moisture, air, acid rain, and sunlight, thus shortening its service life and value.

    “When exposed to an outdoor environment, unprotected bamboo shows bad decay resistance and is susceptible to attacks by fungi and insects, and degradation by moisture, air, acid rain, and sunlight thus shortening its service life and value.149,150”
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84 of 84

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The use of relatively non-toxic and earth-abundant local materials in chemical conversion is a prerequisite for the development of any sustainable process.

    “The use of relatively non-toxic and earth-abundant local materials in chemical conversion is a prerequisite for the development of any sustainable process.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    There is a need to support nanostructured titania for better filtration and material recovery.

    “Second is the need to support nanostructured titania for better filtration and material recovery.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    TiO2 photocatalysis application on an industrial scale is limited and needs to be addressed.

    “Although a significant amount of research has been conducted on TiO 2 photocatalysis at the laboratory scale its application on an industrial scale is limited, which needs to be addressed.”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Biochar-supported photocatalytic hybrid materials have high chemical stability and high recollection ability.

    “Such hybrid materials have been reported with high chemical stability as well as high recollection ability (Colmenares etal. 2016; Kalaivani and Suja 2016; Khataee etal. 2017a, 2017b; Kim and Kan 2016; Kumar etal. 2017; Li etal. 2016; Lisowski etal. 2017; Liu etal. 2017; Luo etal. 2015; Matos etal. 2013a, 2013b; Pi etal. 2015; Wu etal. 2015; Zhang etal. 2017).”

    From Mechanisms and adsorption capacities of biochar for the removal of organic and inorganic pollutants from industrial wastewater (2021) · cites this paper as Colmenares et al. 2016

The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet

References 185 · Cited by 197

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Nguyen, 2015, Adv. Nat. Sci.: Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 6, 1
  2. Barud, 2011, J. Nanomater., 721631
  3. Matos, 2015, Top. Catal., 1
  4. Eliyas, 2013, Cent. Eur. J. Chem., 11, 464
  5. Li, 2007, Chem. J. Chin. Univ., 28, 1710
  6. Cui, 2014, Int. J. Photoenergy, 823078

Authors
Colmenares, J. C., Varma, R. S., & Lisowski, P.
Affiliations
  • Institute of Physical Chemistry (PL)
  • Environmental Protection Agency (US)
Corresponding author
  • Colmenares, Juan Carlos
  • Lisowski, Paweł
ORCID
Venue
Green Chemistry
Publisher
Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
Published
2016
Volume
18
Issue
21
Pages
5736-5750
ISSN
  • 1463-9262 (ISSN-L)
  • 1463-9270
DOI
10.1039/c6gc02477g
PMC
PMC7359876
OpenAlex
W2522650818
Semantic Scholar
34af08feb35fee4a22d512789a86ac26245a3fc9
Cited by
197
References
185
Citations by year
2026: 6 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 18 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 1
FWCI
5.25
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
cc-by
Locations
  • Green Chemistry (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › TiO2 Photocatalysis and Solar Cells
  • Physical Sciences › Energy › Renewable Energy, Sustainability and the Environment › Advanced Photocatalysis Techniques
  • Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Mesoporous Materials and Catalysis
Keywords
photocatalysts, titanium dioxide, carbon materials, renewable resources, immobilization

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Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

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