Coliform mastitis

Wood shavings, straw, chopped newspaper, recycled manure, and corn fodder are commonly used bedding materials that often sustain coliform populations greater than 10^6 colony forming units/gram of bedding.

“Wood shavings, straw, chopped newspaper, recycled manure, and corn fodder are commonly used bedding materials that often sustain coliform populations greater than 10 6 colony forming units/gram of bedding [24, 27].”

• cites [24] [24] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Bacterial counts in bedding materials used on nine commercial dairies, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 250-258. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [27] [27] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Bacterial counts associated with recycled chopped newspaper bedding, J. Dairy Sci. 73 (1990) 1756-1761. - sourceDisputed

  Table 1 (CONCLUSIONS section) reports mean coliform counts of about 10^5.5 CFU/g for used chopped newspaper and 10^5.2 CFU/g for used wood shavings—below the claimed 10^6 threshold. The study did not test recycled manure or corn fodder, and its discussion says straw was not included. The reported counts therefore contradict the threshold claim for the two named materials it measured. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Only about 10% of clinical coliform cases result in systemic signs including fever, anorexia, and altered respiration.

“Only about 10% of clinical coliform cases result in systemic signs including fever, anorexia, and altered respiration [25, 55].”

• cites [25] [25] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Schoenberger P.S., Todhunter D.A., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Conrad H.R., Field survey of mastitis in low somatic cell count herds, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 1547-1556. - sourceDisputed

  The Clinical Mastitis Severity Codes section defines code 5 as including systemic signs. The Mastitis Severity Codes results report that 29.2% of clinical coliform cases were code 5, contrary to the claimed approximately 10%. Our copy does not specify fever, anorexia, or altered respiration as those signs. (LLM, conf=0.90)

  Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The primary host defense against coliform mastitis during lactation is the elimination of bacteria by neutrophils migrating into the gland in response to inflammation.

“The primary host defense against coliform mastitis during lactation is the elimination of bacteria by neutrophils migrating into the gland in response to inflammation.”

• Also stated in: § 3.3. Evading cellular defenses · plain

  “The primary cellular defense of the bovine mammary gland against coliform mastitis is the phagocytosis and killing of bacteria by neutrophils [18, 60].”

• cites [18] [18] Hill A.W., Factors influencing the outcome of Escherichia coli mastitis in the dairy cow, Res. Vet. Sci. 31 (1981) 107-112. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [60] [60] Van Werven T., Noordhuizen-Stassen E.N., Daemen A.J.J.M., Schukken Y.H., Brand A., Burvenich C., Preinfection in vitro chemotaxis, phagocytosis, oxidative burst, and expression of CD11/CD18 receptors and their predictive capacity on the outcome of mastitis induced in dairy cows with Escherichia coli , J. Dairy Sci. 80 (1997) 67-74. - sourceSupported

Damage to the host from coliform mastitis is mediated by the release of endotoxin.

“Damage to the host is mediated by the release of endotoxin.”

• Also stated in: § 3.5. Endotoxin · plain

  “Endotoxin is the primary virulence factor of Gram-negative bacteria responsible for damage to the cow.”

• cites [53] [53] Shuster D.E., Harmon R.J., Jackson J.A., Hemken R.E., Suppression of milk production during endotoxin-induced mastitis, J. Dairy Sci. 74 (1991) 3746-3774. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [3] [3] Bouchard L., Blais S., Desrosiers C., Zhoa X., Lacasse P., Nitic oxide production during endotoxin-induced mastitis in the cow, J. Dairy Sci. 82 (1999) 2574-2581. - sourceSupported
• cites [21] [21] Hirvonen J., Eklund K., Teppo A.M., Huszenicza G., Kulcsar M., Saloniemi H., Pyorala S., Acute phase response in dairy cows with experimentally induced Escherichia coli mastitis, Acta. Vet. Scand. 40 (1999) 35-46. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [22] [22] Hoeben D., Burvenich B., Trevisi E., Bertoni G., Hamann J., Bruckmairer R.M., Blum J.W., Role of endotoxin and TNFin the pathogenesis of experimentally induced coliform mastitis in periparturient cows, J. Dairy Res. 67 (2000) 503-514. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rates of coliform mastitis are greater during the transitional phases of the nonlactating period than during lactation.

“Rates of coliform mastitis are greater during the transitional phases of the nonlactating period than during lactation.”

• Also stated in: § 4.1. Dry period · plain

  “Rates of new intramammary infections caused by coliforms are greater during the dry period than during lactation [12].”

• cites [12] [12] Eberhart R.J., Natzke R.P., Newbould F.S.H., Nonnecke B., Thompson P., Coliform mastitis - a review, J. Dairy Sci . 62 (1979) 1-22. - sourcePartly supported

  The review’s “Time of Infection” section reports coliform infections arising during the dry period and a high proportion of peracute cases around parturition. It does not establish that rates during the transitional phases of the nonlactating period exceed rates during lactation; several figures instead describe cases in early lactation. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.82)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Decreased milk production during clinical coliform mastitis results both directly and indirectly from the local and systemic effects of endotoxin.

“Decreased milk production during clinical coliform mastitis results both directly and indirectly from the local and systemic effects of endotoxin [3, 21, 22].”

• cites [3] [3] Bouchard L., Blais S., Desrosiers C., Zhoa X., Lacasse P., Nitic oxide production during endotoxin-induced mastitis in the cow, J. Dairy Sci. 82 (1999) 2574-2581. - sourcePartly supported

  Experiment 1 reports that intramammary endotoxin infusion reduced milk production and produced both udder inflammation and increased body temperature. The paper does not establish that the reduction resulted both directly and indirectly from local and systemic effects, and its experiment used induced mastitis rather than naturally occurring clinical coliform mastitis. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [21] [21] Hirvonen J., Eklund K., Teppo A.M., Huszenicza G., Kulcsar M., Saloniemi H., Pyorala S., Acute phase response in dairy cows with experimentally induced Escherichia coli mastitis, Acta. Vet. Scand. 40 (1999) 35-46. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [22] [22] Hoeben D., Burvenich B., Trevisi E., Bertoni G., Hamann J., Bruckmairer R.M., Blum J.W., Role of endotoxin and TNFin the pathogenesis of experimentally induced coliform mastitis in periparturient cows, J. Dairy Res. 67 (2000) 503-514. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Intramammary infections caused by Serratia spp. and Pseudomonas spp. often are chronic infections that may persist multiple lactations.

“Intramammary infections caused by Serratia spp. and Pseudomonas spp. often are chronic infections that may persist multiple lactations [25].”

• cites [25] [25] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Schoenberger P.S., Todhunter D.A., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Conrad H.R., Field survey of mastitis in low somatic cell count herds, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 1547-1556. - sourcePartly supported

  The Rates of Clinical Mastitis section reports that 31.0% of cases involving nonlactose-fermenting gram-negative bacilli were potential repeat cases, and relates this finding to high clinical recurrence among pseudomonads. The paper does not identify Serratia in that finding or establish that infections were chronic or persisted across multiple lactations; the herds were monitored for one year. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Coliform mastitis can result in bacteremia and septicemia as the blood-milk barrier is destroyed.

“Coliform mastitis can result in bacteremia and septicemia as the blood-milk barrier is destroyed [61].”

• cites [61] [61] Wenz J.R., Barrington G.M., Garry F.B., McSweeney K.D., Dinsmore R.P., Goodell G., Callan R.J., Bacteremia associated with naturally occuring acute coliform mastitis in dairy cows, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 219 (2001) 976-981. - sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion (page unavailable) reports that E. coli and Klebsiella isolated from cows’ blood matched isolates from their infected mammary glands, supporting mastitis-associated bacteremia. It does not establish septicemia or show that destruction of the blood–milk barrier caused the bacteremia; it also notes that some cases may involve bacteria translocating from other organs. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Studies in the United States and Europe consistently report that approximately 40% of clinical cases are the result of Gram-negative bacteria.

“The percentage distribution of Gram-negative bacteria causing clinical mastitis is herd dependant, but studies in the United States and Europe consistently report that appropriately 40% of clinical cases are the result of Gram-negative bacteria [25, 27, 55, 57].”

• cites [25] [25] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Schoenberger P.S., Todhunter D.A., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Conrad H.R., Field survey of mastitis in low somatic cell count herds, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 1547-1556. - sourcePartly supported

  The Distribution of Clinical Cases by Bacteriological Status section reports 29.7% coliform cases and 6.5% nonlactose-fermenting cases; the paper identifies the latter as Gram-negative bacilli. Together, these account for about 36% of cases in the herds studied, reasonably close to 40%. The paper does not establish that studies across the United States and Europe consistently find that proportion; its comparison with United Kingdom herds concerns overall mastitis rates, not the Gram-negative percentage. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [27] [27] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Bacterial counts associated with recycled chopped newspaper bedding, J. Dairy Sci. 73 (1990) 1756-1761. - sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction discusses bedding as a source of mastitis pathogens, and Bedding Counts reports that 1.1% of quarters had a Gram-negative intramammary infection. Neither passage gives the proportion of clinical mastitis cases caused by Gram-negative bacteria. Searches for the claimed 40% figure and for clinical-case proportions found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [57] [57] Suriyasathaporn W., Schukken Y.H., Nielen M., Brand A., Low somatic cell count: a risk factor for subsequent clinical mastitis in a dairy herd, J. Dairy Sci. 83 (2000) 12481255. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Coliforms that can metabolize the constituents of milk in the micro-environment of the gland can reach populations exceeding 10^8 colony-forming units per milliliter of milk.

“Coliforms that can metabolize the constituents of milk in the micro-environment of the gland can reach populations exceeding 10 8 colony-forming units per milliliter of milk [31].”

• cites [31] [31] Hogan J.S., Weiss W.P., Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Schoenberger P.S., Efficacy of an Escherichia coli J5 vaccine in an experimental challenge trial, J. Dairy Sci. 75 (1992) 415-422. - sourceCould not verify

  The Introduction discusses coliform intramammary infections, and the Milk samples section describes culturing milk to identify bacteria. Neither reports coliform growth from milk constituents or populations exceeding 10^8 colony-forming units per milliliter; searches for those terms and the numerical threshold found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The high frequency of clinical cases and relatively short duration of Gram-negative bacterial intramammary infections render individual cow SCC and bulk tank SCC poor indicators of the prevalence of disease caused by these bacteria.

“The high frequency of clinical cases and relatively short duration of Gram-negative bacterial intramammary infections render the use of individual cow SCC and bulk tank SCC as poor indicators of the prevalence of disease caused by these bacteria [13, 20, 25, 57].”

• cites [13] [13] Erskine R.J., Eberhart R.J., Hutchinson L.J., Spencer S.B., Herd management and prevalence of mastitis in dairy herds with high and 14. low somatic cell counts, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 190 (1987) 1411-1416. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [20] [20] Hillerton J.E., Bramley A.J., Staker R.T., McKinnon C.H., Patterns of intramammary infection and clinical mastitis over a 5 year period in a closely monitored herd applying mastitis control measures, J. Dairy Res. 62 (1995) 39-50. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [25] [25] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Schoenberger P.S., Todhunter D.A., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Conrad H.R., Field survey of mastitis in low somatic cell count herds, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 1547-1556. - sourcePartly supported

  The Conclusions (page unavailable) state that herds with low somatic cell counts can still have unacceptable frequencies of intramammary infections and clinical cases caused by environmental pathogens. The paper also reports frequent coliform clinical cases, but it does not establish that Gram-negative infections are relatively short-lived or assess whether individual-cow and bulk-tank SCC are poor indicators of their prevalence. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [57] [57] Suriyasathaporn W., Schukken Y.H., Nielen M., Brand A., Low somatic cell count: a risk factor for subsequent clinical mastitis in a dairy herd, J. Dairy Sci. 83 (2000) 12481255. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: The prevalence of coliform mastitis in a herd seldom exceeds five percent of quarters because coliform infections tend to be of short duration during lactation.
• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Approximately 85% of coliform infections will cause clinical mastitis.

The rate of clinical cases caused by Gram-negative bacteria averages approximately 20 cases per 100 cows per year in these studies.

“Rate of clinical cases caused by Gram-negative bacteria average approximately 20 cases per 100 cows per year in these studies.”

• cites [25] [25] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Schoenberger P.S., Todhunter D.A., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Conrad H.R., Field survey of mastitis in low somatic cell count herds, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 1547-1556. - sourceSupported
• cites [27] [27] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Bacterial counts associated with recycled chopped newspaper bedding, J. Dairy Sci. 73 (1990) 1756-1761. - sourceCould not verify

  The Bedding Counts section reports that 1.1% of quarters had Gram-negative intramammary infections; that is not a rate of clinical cases. Searches for annual clinical-case rates and 20 cases per 100 cows found no such figure in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [57] [57] Suriyasathaporn W., Schukken Y.H., Nielen M., Brand A., Low somatic cell count: a risk factor for subsequent clinical mastitis in a dairy herd, J. Dairy Sci. 83 (2000) 12481255. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Serum resistance does not differ between coliforms isolated from intramammary infections originating during the dry period and strains creating infections that originate during lactation.

“However, serum resistance does not differ between coliforms isolated from intramammary infections originating during the dry period and strains creating infections that originate during lactation [26].”

• cites [26] [26] Hogan J.S., Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Schoenberger P.S., Serum susceptibility of coliforms isolated from bovine intramammary infections, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 1893-1899. - sourceSupported

The rate of clinical mastitis caused by Gram-negative bacteria was 4 to 5-fold lower in vaccinated cows compared with controls in controlled field trials.

“Rate of clinical mastitis caused by Gram-negative bacteria was 4 to 5-fold lower in vaccinated cows compared with controls in controlled field trials [16, 28].”

• cites [16] [16] Gonzalez R.N., Cullor J.S., Jasper D.E., Farver T.B., Bushnell R.B., Oliver M.N., Prevention of clinical coliform mastitis in dairy cows by a mutant Escherichia coli vaccine, Can. J. Vet. Res. 53 (1989) 301-305. -Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites [28] [28] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Field trial to determine efficacy of an Escherichia coli J5 mastitis vaccine, J. Dairy Sci. 75 (1992) 78-84. - sourceSupported

Enhanced opsonization of wild strains of coliform bacteria by serum and whey of vaccinated cows was correlated with elevated IgM titers.

“Enhanced opsonization of wild strains of coliform bacteria by serum and whey of vaccinated cows was correlated with elevated IgM titers [30].”

• cites [30] [30] Hogan J.S., Todhunter D.A., Tomita G.M., Smith K.L., Schoenberger P.S., Opsonic activity of bovine serum and mammary secretion after Escherchia coli J5 vaccination, J. Dairy Sci. 75 (1992) 72-77. - sourcePartly supported

  The Serum section reports increased opsonization with serum collected 21 days after calving and a correlation with IgM titers. The Discussion reports an IgM-related trend toward increased opsonization with colostrum, but mammary secretions collected at other times did not show increased opsonic activity. The study tested one heterologous E. coli strain, so the claim overgeneralizes to wild coliform strains and to whey without the timing and uncertainty qualifiers. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Titers responsive to immunization were negatively correlated with severity of clinical signs of mastitis following intramammary challenge.

“Titers responsive to immunization were negatively correlated with severity of clinical signs of mastitis following intramammary challenge [33].”

• cites [33] [33] Hogan J.S., Weiss W.P., Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Sordillo L.M., Effects of an Escherichia coli J5 vaccine on mild clinical coliform mastitis, J. Dairy Sci. 78 (1995) 285-290. - sourcePartly supported

  The Results and Discussion report that cows vaccinated with J5 had less severe local clinical signs after intramammary challenge than placebo-treated cows. The Statistical Analyses section lists comparisons of treatment groups, but our copy does not report immunization-responsive titers or a correlation between titers and clinical severity. The claim's titer-specific relationship is therefore unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

66.7% of coliform intramammary infections in unvaccinated cows became clinical during early lactation compared to 20% in vaccinated cows.

“The most striking difference between vaccinated and nonvaccinated cows was that 66.7% of coliform intramammary infections in unvaccinated cows became clinical during early lactation compared to 20% in vaccinated cows [28].”

• cites [28] [28] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Field trial to determine efficacy of an Escherichia coli J5 mastitis vaccine, J. Dairy Sci. 75 (1992) 78-84. - sourcePartly supported

  The results passage reports that 66.7% of Gram-negative intramammary infections at calving in unvaccinated cows became clinical during the first 90 days of lactation, compared with 20% in vaccinated cows. The percentages and timing match, but the paper applies them to Gram-negative infections, not specifically to the narrower coliform category; it also lists Pseudomonas among the organisms. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Recurrent or chronic E. coli infections have been reported as accounting for a relatively small percentage of intramammary infections in survey herds.

“Recurrent or chronic E. coli infections have been reported as accounting a relatively small percentage of intramammary infections in survey herds [25, 55].”

• cites [25] [25] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Schoenberger P.S., Todhunter D.A., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Conrad H.R., Field survey of mastitis in low somatic cell count herds, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 1547-1556. - sourcePartly supported

  The Rates of Clinical Mastitis section (page unavailable) reports that potential repeat coliform cases accounted for less than 10% of coliform clinical cases; Table 8 gives 7.5%. This supports a small proportion of repeat cases in the survey herds, but the paper reports coliforms rather than E. coli specifically, and potential repeat clinical cases rather than confirmed recurrent or chronic intramammary infections. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Coliform bacteria are the culprits of 60 to 70% of peracute clinical cases.

“Survey averages suggest that coliform bacteria are the culprits of 60 to 70% of peracute clinical cases [25, 55].”

• cites [25] [25] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Schoenberger P.S., Todhunter D.A., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Conrad H.R., Field survey of mastitis in low somatic cell count herds, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 1547-1556. - sourcePartly supported

  The Mastitis Severity Codes section defines code 5 as cases with abnormal milk, quarter swelling, and systemic signs. The severity-code results and Table 2 report that coliforms accounted for 58.9% of code 5 cases, approximately the lower end of the claimed range. The paper does not identify these cases as “peracute” or report a figure approaching 70%. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Data from field trials suggest that these vaccines also reduce clinical cases of mastitis caused by species in the genera Klebsiella, Pseudomonas, Serratia, and Proteus.

“Data from field trials suggest that these vaccines also reduce clinical cases of mastitis caused by species in the genera Klebsiella , Pseudomonas , Serratia , and Proteus [16, 28].”

• cites [16] [16] Gonzalez R.N., Cullor J.S., Jasper D.E., Farver T.B., Bushnell R.B., Oliver M.N., Prevention of clinical coliform mastitis in dairy cows by a mutant Escherichia coli vaccine, Can. J. Vet. Res. 53 (1989) 301-305. -Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites [28] [28] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Field trial to determine efficacy of an Escherichia coli J5 mastitis vaccine, J. Dairy Sci. 75 (1992) 78-84. - sourcePartly supported

  The field-trial results report fewer clinical Gram-negative mastitis cases in vaccinated cows, supporting the general suggestion of protection. The results also identify Serratia, Pseudomonas, and Klebsiella among infections at calving, but do not report reduced clinical cases separately for those genera; no passage found mentions Proteus (searched: Proteus and genus-specific clinical cases). (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

The ability of coliform bacteria to infect the non-lactating mammary gland is directly related to their ability to acquire iron from the mammary secretion.

“The ability to infect the non-lactating gland is directly related to the ability of bacteria to acquire iron from the mammary secretion.”

• cites [54] [54] Smith K.L., Schanbacher F.L., Lactoferrin as a factor of resistence to infection in the mammary gland, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 170 (1976) 1224-1227. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [58] [58] Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Hogan J.S., Growth of Gram-negative bacteria in dry cow secretion, J. Dairy Sci. 73 (1990) 363-372. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [41] [41] Lin J., Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Growth responses of coliform bacteria to purified immunoglobulin G from cows immunized with ferric enterobactin receptor FepA, J. Dairy Sci. 82 (1999) 86-92. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Gram-negative bacteria that commonly cause bovine mastitis are classified as environmental pathogens.

“Gram-negative bacteria that commonly cause bovine mastitis are classified as environmental pathogens.”

• Also stated in: § 1. INTRODUCTION · plain

  “Gram-negative bacteria are considered environmental mastitis pathogens [34].”

• cites [34] [34] Hogan J.S., Gonzalez R.N., Harmon R.J., Nickerson S.C., Oliver S.P., Pankey J.W., Smith K.L., Laboratory Handbook on Bovine Mastitis, National Mastitis Council, Inc., Madison, Wisconsin, USA, 1999. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Coliform bacteria that cause infections originate from bedding materials, soil, manure and other organic matter in the environment of cows.

The average duration of E. coli intramammary infections during lactation is less than ten days.

“The average duration of E. coli intramammary infections during lactation is less than ten days [59].”

• cites [59] [59] Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Hogan J.S., Schoenberger P.S., Gram-negative bacterial infections of the mammary gland in cows, Am. J. Vet. Res. 52 (1991) 184-188. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Klebsiella pneumoniae are more capable than most strains of E. coli to overcome the inhibitory effects of lactoferrin and infect involuted mammary glands.

“Klebsiella pneumoniae are more capable than most strains of E. coli to overcome the inhibitory effects of lactoferrin and infect involuted mammary glands [58].”

• cites [58] [58] Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Hogan J.S., Growth of Gram-negative bacteria in dry cow secretion, J. Dairy Sci. 73 (1990) 363-372. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Complement activity is greater in secretions from involuted mammary glands than in milk collected during lactation.

“Complement activity is greater in secretions from involuted mammary glands than in milk collected during lactation [51].”

• cites [51] [51] Poutrel B., Rainard P., Hemolytic and bactericidal activities of bovine complement in mammary secretions of cows during the early nonlactating (dry) period, Am. J. Vet. Res. 47 (1986) 1961-1962. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Escherichia coli isolated from intramammary infections originating during the periparturient period were more resistant to phagocytosis than isolates from infections originating in the early dry period or during lactation.

“Escherichia coli isolated from intramammary infections originating during the periparturient period were more resistant to phagocytosis than isolates from infections originating in the early dry period or during lactation [29].”

• cites [29] [29] Hogan J.S., Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Schoenberger P.S., Susceptibility of Escherichia coli isolated from intramammary infections to phagocytosis by bovine neutrophils, J. Dairy Sci. 75 (1992) 3324-3329. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The percentage of isolates from intramammary infections susceptible to the bactericidal and bacteriostatic activities of bovine serum is similar to the percentage of serum susceptible coliform isolates existing in the environment of the cow.

“The percentage of isolates from intramammary infections susceptible to the bactericidal and bacteriostatic activities of bovine serum is similar to the percentage of serum susceptible coliform isolates existing in the environment of the cow [5].”

• cites [5] [5] Carroll E.J., Bactericidal activity of bovine serums against coliform organisms isolated from milk of mastitic udders, udder skin, and environment, Am. J. Vet. Res. 32 (1971) 689-701. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The duration of intramammary infections caused by K. pneumoniae averages about 21 days.

“Duration of intramammary infections caused by K. pneumoniae average about 21 days [55].”

• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Capsule producing strains of E. coli are more likely to create intramammary infections of longer duration than are non-encapsulated strains of E. coli.

“Capsule producing strains of E. coli are more likely to create intramammary infections of longer duration than are non-encapsulated strains of E. coli [19].”

• cites [19] [19] Hill A.W., Heneghan D.J.S., Williams M.R., The opsonic activity of bovine milk whey for the phagocytosis and killing by neutrophils of encapsulated and non-encapsulated Escherichia coli , Vet. Microbiol. 8 (1983) 293-300. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Capsules produced by K. pneumoniae isolated from bovine intramammary infections block deposition of complement and camouflage against antibody-mediated opsonization.

“Capsules produced by K. pneumoniae isolated from bovine intramammary infections block deposition of complement and camouflage against antibody-mediated opsonization [62].”

• cites [62] [62] Williams P., Lambert P.A., Brown M.R.W., Penetration of immunoglobulin through the Klebsiella capsule and their effect on cellsurface hydrophobicity, J. Med. Microbiol. 26 (1988) 29-35. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Escherichia coli infections present at calving and early lactation most often originate during the last two weeks of the dry period.

“Escherichia coli infections present at calving and early lactation most often originate during the last two weeks of the dry period [59].”

• cites [59] [59] Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Hogan J.S., Schoenberger P.S., Gram-negative bacterial infections of the mammary gland in cows, Am. J. Vet. Res. 52 (1991) 184-188. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Adherence of E. coli and K. pneumoniae to epithelial tissue does not play a major role in the pathogenesis of bovine mastitis.

“Adherence of E. coli and K. pneumoniae to epithelial tissue does not play a major role in the pathogenesis of bovine mastitis [15, 47].”

• cites [15] [15] Frost A.J., Wanasingue D.D., Woolcock J.B., Some factors affecting selective adherence of microorganisms in the bovine mammary gland, Infect. Immun. 15 (1977) 245-253. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites [47] [47] Opdebeeck J.P., Frost A.J., O'Boyle D., Adhesion of Staphylococcus aureus and - Escherichia coli to bovine udder epithelial cells, Vet. Microbiol. 16 (1988) 77-86. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

During the dry period, susceptibility to intramammary infections is greatest the two weeks after drying off and the two weeks prior to calving.

“During the dry period, susceptibility to intramammary infections is greatest the two weeks after drying off and the two weeks prior to calving [56].”

• cites [56] [56] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental pathogens and intramam- - mary infection during the dry period, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 402-417. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Secretions from fully involuted mammary glands do not readily support growth and multiplication of coliform bacteria.

“Secretions from fully involuted mammary glands do not readily support growth and multiplication of coliform bacteria [46].”

• cites [46] [46] Oliver S.P., Bushe T., Growth inhibition of Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae during involution of the mammary gland: relation to secretion composition, Am. J. Vet. Res. 48 (1987) 1669-1673. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Serum resistant coliforms apparently have no selected advantage over serum susceptible coliforms for creating naturally occurring intramammary infections.

“Therefore, serum resistant coliforms apparently have no selected advantage over serum susceptible coliforms for creating naturally occurring intramammary infections.”

Escherichia coli strains within O serotype groups O8 and O9 possess antiphagocytic factors that are not related to capsule.

“Escherichia coli strains within O serotype groups O8 and O9 possess antiphagocytic factors that are not related to capsule [19].”

• cites [19] [19] Hill A.W., Heneghan D.J.S., Williams M.R., The opsonic activity of bovine milk whey for the phagocytosis and killing by neutrophils of encapsulated and non-encapsulated Escherichia coli , Vet. Microbiol. 8 (1983) 293-300. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Growth of E. coli can be inhibited in secretion from involuted glands by blocking iron uptake with antibody specific for the enterobactin receptor.

“Growth of E. coli can be inhibited in secretion from involuted glands by blocking iron uptake with antibody specific for the enterobactin receptor [41].”

• cites [41] [41] Lin J., Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Growth responses of coliform bacteria to purified immunoglobulin G from cows immunized with ferric enterobactin receptor FepA, J. Dairy Sci. 82 (1999) 86-92. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The limiting nutritional factor for many coliform bacteria in the dry mammary gland is iron.

“The limiting nutritional factor for many coliform bacteria in the dry mammary gland is iron [54].”

• cites [54] [54] Smith K.L., Schanbacher F.L., Lactoferrin as a factor of resistence to infection in the mammary gland, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 170 (1976) 1224-1227. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

65% of coliform clinical cases that occur in the first two months of lactation are intramammary infections that originated during the dry period.

“Research has shown that 65% of coliform clinical cases that occur in the first two months of lactation are intramammary infections that originated during the dry period [55].”

• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Most of these vaccines use either Escherichia coli J5 or Salmonella typhimurium Re17 as the antigens.

“Most of these vaccines use either Escherichia coli J5 or Salmonella typhimurium Re17 [43] as the antigens.”

• cites [43] [43] McClure A.M., Christopher E.E., Wolff W.A., Fales W.H., Krause G.F., Miramonti J., Effect of Re-17 mutant Salmonella typhimurium bacteria toxoid on clinical mastitis, J. Dairy Sci. 77 (1994) 2272-2280. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Serratia spp. and Pseudomonas spp. often are resistant to the bactericidal activity of chlorhexidine gluconate.

“However, Serratia spp. and Pseudomonas spp. often are resistant to the bactericidal activity of chlorhexidine gluconate [8, 39].”

• cites [8] [8] Dody J., Devleeschouwer M.J., Momin P., Comparison of the sensitivity of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to disinfectants according to the growth conditions, Int. J. Pharm. 19 (1984) 239-242. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [39] [39] Lannigan R., Lawrence L.E., Decreased susceptibility of Serratia marcescens to chlorhexidine related to the inner membrane, J. Antimicrobiol. Chemother. 15 (1989) 559565. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

FepA was determined to be an excellent protein from which to formulate vaccines because FepA was expressed on all clinical isolates tested.

“FepA was determined to be an excellent protein from which to formulate vaccines because FepA was expressed on all clinical isolates tested [40].”

• cites [40] [40] Lin J., Hogan J.S., Aslam M., Smith K.L., Immunization of cows with ferric enterobactin receptor from coliform bacteria, J. Dairy Sci. 81 (1998) 2151-2158. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Coliforms isolated from intramammary infections shared a specific enterochelin-iron retrieval system that included a protein on the cellular surface named FepA.

The ability of E. coli and K. pneumoniae to cause mastitis is related to the ability of these isolates to overcome the inhibitory properties of lactoferrin.

“The ability of E. coli and K. pneumoniae to cause mastitis is related to the ability of these isolates to overcome the inhibitory properties of lactoferrin [58].”

• cites [58] [58] Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Hogan J.S., Growth of Gram-negative bacteria in dry cow secretion, J. Dairy Sci. 73 (1990) 363-372. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The number of Gram-negative bacteria on teat skin is a reflection of the cow's recent exposure to the contaminating environment.

“Therefore the number of Gram-negative bacteria on teat skin is a reflection of the cow's recent exposure to the contaminating environment.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Gram-negative bacteria are inept at surviving and multiplying on teat skin.

The use of antibiotics administered by intramammary or systemic routes for treating E. coli clinical cases is virtually useless because of the short duration of infections and high spontaneous cure rate.

“The use of antibiotics administered by intramammary or systemic routes for treating E. coli clinical cases is virtually useless because of the short duration of infections and high spontaneous cure rate [55].”

• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Older cows calving during the summer months are commonly the population of animals at greatest risk to coliform clinical mastitis.

“Older cows calving during the summer months are commonly the population of animals at greatest risk to coliform clinical mastitis [55].”

• cites [55] [55] Smith K.L., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Environmental mastitis: cause, prevalence, prevention, J. Dairy Sci. 68 (1985) 1531-1553. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The protein lactoferrin binds iron and makes the element unavailable to bacteria.

“The protein lactoferrin binds iron and makes the element unavailable to bacteria [54].”

• cites [54] [54] Smith K.L., Schanbacher F.L., Lactoferrin as a factor of resistence to infection in the mammary gland, J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 170 (1976) 1224-1227. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

The use of post-milking teat antisepsis as a means to control coliform mastitis is unsuccessful.

“However, the use of post-milking teat antisepsis as a means to control coliform mastitis is unsuccessful [49].”

• cites [49] [49] Pankey J.W., Eberhart R.J., Cuming A.L., Daggett R.D., Farnsworth R.J., McDuff C.K., Update on postmilking teat antisepsis, J. Dairy Sci. 67 (1984) 1336-1353. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The use of antibiotics for treatment of mammary glands at the end of lactation has no effect on the prevalence of coliform infections at calving.

“The use of antibiotics for treatment of mammary glands at the end of lactation has no effect on the prevalence of coliform infections at calving [2].”

• cites [2] [2] Berry E.A., Hillerton J.E., The effect of selective dry cow treatment on new intramammary infections, J. Dairy Sci. 85 (2002) 112-121. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Use of the inorganic bedding materials sand and crushed limestone exposes cows to fewer Gram-negative bacteria than use of organic materials such as wood products and straw.

“Use of the inorganic bedding materials sand and crushed limestone exposes cows to fewer Gram-negative bacteria than the use of organic materials such as wood products and straw [24].”

• cites [24] [24] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Hoblet K.H., Todhunter D.A., Schoenberger P.S., Hueston W.D., Pritchard D.E., Bowman G.L., Heider L.E., Brockett B.L., Bacterial counts in bedding materials used on nine commercial dairies, J. Dairy Sci. 72 (1989) 250-258. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Outbreaks of clinical mastitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae are common in herds using finely chopped sawdust.

“For example, outbreaks of clinical mastitis caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae are common in herds using finely chopped sawdust [45].”

• cites [45] [45] Newman L.E., Kowalski J.J., Fresh sawdust bedding - a possible source of Klebsiella organisms, Am. J. Vet. Res. 34 (1973) 979980. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Rates of new infection and clinical mastitis are highest in summer months for confinement-housed cows.

“Rates of new infection and clinical mastitis are highest in summer months for confinement-housed cows [59].”

• cites [59] [59] Todhunter D.A., Smith K.L., Hogan J.S., Schoenberger P.S., Gram-negative bacterial infections of the mammary gland in cows, Am. J. Vet. Res. 52 (1991) 184-188. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

The use of germicidal sanitizers on teats immediately prior to milking (predipping) can reduce the incidence of new coliform infections during lactation.

“The use of germicidal sanitizers on teats immediately prior to milking (predipping) can reduce the incidence of new coliform infections during lactation [48].”

• cites [48] [48] Pankey J.W., Hygiene at milking time in the prevention of bovine mastitis, Br. Vet. J. 145 (1989) 401-409. - sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Sporadic herd outbreaks involving Gram-negative bacteria other than the coliforms have been reported.

“Although clinical mastitis caused by species of Serratia, Pseudomonas, and Proteus tend to occur much less frequently than clinical coliform mastitis, sporadic herd outbreaks involving Gram-negative bacteria other than the coliforms have been reported [23].”

• cites [23] [23] Hogan J.S., Smith K.L., Importance of the dry period during Serratia mastitis outbreaks, Large Anim. Pract. 18 (1997) 20-25. -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.