The Multiple Facets of Cigarette Addiction and What They Mean for Encouraging and Helping Smokers to Stop
Open accessAbstract
Addiction involves powerful motivation to engage in an activity repeatedly to an extent that is harmful often accompanied by impaired capacity for self-control. To effectively combat addiction to cigarettes requires an understanding that there are several mechanisms underlying it. The PRIME Theory of motivation aims to provide a model that can encapsulate these mechanisms. It recognises that evolution has led to multiple levels of motivation from basic impulses and inhibitions, through 'motives' (feelings of want and need), to 'evaluations' (beliefs about what is good or bad), and plans (intentions regarding future actions). Self-control involves self-consciously generating motives from evaluations or plans; it requires and depletes mental energy. Nicotine from cigarettes generates the motivation to smoke and undermines self-control by interacting with all of the level of motivation. It: creates stimulus-impulse associations resulting in cue-driven urges; impairs inhibitory control; gives enjoyment resulting in 'wanting' to smoke; it leads to 'nicotine hunger', withdrawal symptoms and beliefs about benefits of smoking (e.g. stress relief) all of which can result in a 'need' to smoke. Evidence is emerging that wanting to smoke (because of enjoyment) is a major deterrent to making quit attempts but does not influence success, while cue-driven impulses to smoke, nicotine hunger and adverse mood and beliefs about the benefits of smoking are important in relapse. Combating cigarette addiction requires attention to all of these factors.
AI snapshot
Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
West argues that cigarette addiction arises from multiple motivational mechanisms in PRIME Theory—impulses and inhibitions, motives, evaluations, plans, and self-control—and that cessation requires addressing all of them. It distinguishes wanting to smoke for enjoyment, which deters quit attempts, from cue-driven urges, nicotine hunger, withdrawal, and beliefs about smoking benefits, which drive relapse.
Key findings
- PRIME Theory proposes multiple levels of motivation: responses, impulses and inhibitions, motives, evaluations, and plans; higher levels must operate through lower ones, and self-control requires and depletes mental energy.
- Nicotine acts at all levels: it creates stimulus-impulse associations and cue-driven urges, impairs inhibitory control during withdrawal, produces enjoyment and “wanting” to smoke, and causes “nicotine hunger,” withdrawal symptoms, and beliefs about benefits such as stress relief that can generate a “need” to smoke.
- Evidence is emerging that wanting to smoke because of enjoyment is a major deterrent to making quit attempts but does not influence success, while cue-driven impulses, nicotine hunger, adverse mood, and beliefs about the benefits of smoking are important in relapse.
- In approximately half of cases where smokers form a rule to stop, there is no pre-planning; using nicotine patches for 2 weeks prior to the quit date appears to improve long-term abstinence rates.
Methods
- Conceptual/theoretical paper presenting the PRIME Theory of motivation and applying it to cigarette addiction and smoking cessation; no primary empirical study is reported.
- Draws on cited literature and clinical experience to propose principles for clinical interventions, including a 4-state model of smoking cessation and the SNAP model.
- No sample, data collection, or statistical analysis is reported.
Limitations
- The paper states no limitations. Evident: it is a narrative theoretical synthesis, not a systematic review or empirical test, and some cited evidence is described as emerging or anecdotal.
- Evident: the author reports receiving funds for research and consultancy from companies that develop and manufacture smoking cessation medications, a potential conflict of interest.
- Evident: “mental energy” is acknowledged as lacking a known physiological basis and can currently be defined only in terms of subjective experience and behavioral correlates.
Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.
Integrity signals
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Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
0 of 43 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged
- Premisecitation
Much behaviour is driven by habit or instinct in which one responds without thinking about the consequences.
“However, it is clear that much behaviour is driven by habit or instinct in which one just responds without thinking about the consequences (3)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Mook D G, 1996
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- Premisecitation
During nicotine withdrawal smokers have impaired functioning of the low-level brain mechanisms that underlie inhibition.
“There is also emerging evidence that during nicotine withdrawal smokers have impaired functioning of the low-level brain mechanisms that underlie inhibition (13).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [13] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
We sometimes do things because we planned to do them or have rules about them and do not have to weigh up the costs and benefits each time.
“Moreover, it is apparent that we sometimes do things because we planned to do them or have rules about them and do not have to weigh up the costs and benefits each time (3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Mook D G, 1996
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Dopamine release in the core of the nucleus accumbens appears to act to generate stimulus-impulse associations.
“Dopamine release in the core appears to act to generate stimulus-impulse associations (10,11).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Nicotine taps directly into one of the most basic levels of human motivation generating the impulse to smoke in the presence of smoking cues.
“Thus nicotine taps directly into one of the most basic levels of human motivation generating the impulse to smoke in the presence of smoking cues (12).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [12] Ferguson S G, 2008, J Subst Abuse Treat
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Evolution has led to a multi-level motivational system in which new, higher levels of flexibility have been added on to older ones but have to work through the latter to influence behaviour.
“It proposes that evolution has led to a multi-level motivational system in which new, higher levels of flexibility have been added on to older ones but have to work through the latter to influence behaviour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [5] West R, 2006
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- Premisecitation
Our capacity and skills at achieving self-regulation based on rules we impose on ourselves is a major factor in achieving life goals.
“Our capacity and skills at achieving self-regulation based on rules we impose on ourselves is a major factor in achieving life goals (4).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
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- Premisecitation
Often our actions are driven by feelings of desire rather than judgements about what would be the best option.
“and often our actions are driven by feelings of desire rather than judgements about what would be the best option (3).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [3] Mook D G, 1996
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
Smokers can feel urges to smoke in the presence of smoking cues that seem to arise without any obvious reason or anticipation of pleasure from smoking.
“Thus smokers can feel urges to smoke in the presence of smoking cues that seem to arise without any obvious reason or anticipation of pleasure from smoking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in many parts of the brain, particularly the ventral tegmental area.
“The nicotine binds to nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in many parts of the brain but of particular interest is the ventral tegmental area (7,8).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
In approximately half the cases where a quit attempt is made, there is no pre-planning; the smoker implements the quit attempt as soon as the decision is made.
“In approximately half the cases where this occurs, there is no pre-planning; the smoker implements the quit attempt as soon as the decision is made (28).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [28] source
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- Premisecitation
Depressed mood early on in the quit attempt appears to be the one most strongly associated with relapse.
“Of these, depressed mood early on in the quit attempt appears to be the one most strongly associated with relapse (19)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [19] source
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- Interpretationreasoning
In practice the lapse does usually lead eventually to full relapse.
“However, in practice the lapse does usually lead eventually to full relapse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
For the rule to generate sufficiently strong wants or needs to inhibit smoking, it needs to be linked to 'deep identity': self-ascribed labels and attributes to which the individual is emotionally attached.
“However, for the rule to be able to generate sufficiently strong wants or needs to inhibit smoking, it needs to be linked to what might be termed 'deep identity': self-ascribed labels and attributes to which the individual is emotionally attached.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The rewarding effect of smoking is enhanced by other stimuli such as the sensation of smoke in the throat being closely paired in time with the nicotine reward.
“It appears that this rewarding effect is enhanced by the fact that other stimuli such as the sensation of smoke in the throat are closely paired in time with the nicotine reward (14)”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [14] source
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- Premisecitation
The intention to stop is quite variable and stimulus dependent.
“The intention to stop is quite variable and stimulus dependent (29).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [29] source
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- Interpretationreasoning
PRIME Theory predicts that the nature of the not-smoking rule may have a major bearing on the outcome of the quit attempt.
“PRIME Theory predicts that the nature of the not-smoking rule may have a major bearing on the outcome of the quit attempt.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Chronic nicotine ingestion from cigarettes leads to chronic functional changes in several parts of the brain that lead smokers to feel a need to smoke-to relieve a kind of 'nicotine hunger'.
“Chronic nicotine ingestion from cigarettes also leads to chronic functional changes in several parts of the brain that lead smokers to feel a need to smoke-to relieve a kind of 'nicotine hunger'.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
If an individual has low reserves of mental energy or a weakened motivation for self-protection, the self-imposed rule of not smoking may not be sufficient to prevent the behaviour.
“If, at the same time, that individual has low reserves of mental energy or a weakened motivation for self-protection, the self-imposed rule of not smoking may not be sufficient to prevent the behaviour.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
This may occur many months and sometimes years after having stopped smoking.
“This may occur many months and sometimes years after having stopped smoking.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
If the rule is that the smoker will 'try not to smoke,' it would be expected that it would not generate sufficiently strong motivation on all relevant occasions to prevent smoking.
“If the rule is that the smoker will 'try not to smoke,' it would be expected that it would not generate sufficiently strong motivation on all relevant occasions to prevent smoking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationnone given
If the would-be ex-smoker maintains complete abstinence, cue-driven impulses to smoke, nicotine hunger and withdrawal symptoms decline, presumably as the brain recovers its normal functioning.
“If the would-be ex-smoker is able to maintain complete abstinence cue-driven impulses to smoke, nicotine hunger and withdrawal symptoms decline, presumably as the brain recovers its normal functioning.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- The authors state this as an assumption: The brain recovers its normal functioning during abstinence, leading to decline in cue-driven impulses, nicotine hunger and withdrawal symptoms.
- Premisecitation
Having attempted to stop and failed in the past few weeks or even months is strongly associated with failure of a subsequent quit attempt, even controlling for other measures of addiction.
“Having attempted to stop and failed in the past few weeks or even months is strongly associated with failure of a subsequent quit attempt, even controlling for other measures of addiction (25).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Premisecitation
Chronic financial stress and depression, which deplete mental energy, are associated with greater risk of relapse.
“It has also been found that chronic financial stress (26) and depression (19), which deplete mental energy are associated with greater risk of relapse.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Once the cigarette is smoked, it rekindles the other sources of motivation, including stimulus-impulse associations and nicotine hunger, leading over a period of time to full resumption of smoking.
“However, once the cigarette is smoked, it rekindles the other sources of motivation, including the stimulus-impulse associations and the 'nicotine hunger'; this leads over a period of time to full resumption of smoking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Enjoyment of smoking, leading to 'wanting' to smoke, does not appear to be a major factor in relapse.
“Enjoyment of smoking, leading to 'wanting' to smoke does not appear to be a major factor in relapse (31),”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [31] source
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- Premisecitation
The binding of nicotine to receptors in the ventral tegmental area results in pleasant sensations because of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens shell.
“The binding of nicotine to receptors in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), aside from generating the impulse to smoke by virtue of dopamine release in the core of the nucleus accumbens, results in pleasant sensations because of dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens shell (11).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [11] source
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- Interpretationcitation
A smoker who feels miserable and wants to be 'cheered' up, or who is stressed and needs to feel better, will on those occasions experience a want or need to smoke.
“Thus, a smoker who feels miserable and wants to be 'cheered' up, or who is stressed and needs to feel better will on those occasions experience a want or need to smoke (24).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [24] source
Not checked in the free run.
- Interpretationreasoning
In terms of PRIME Theory, the process of smoking cessation involves forming a personal rule not to smoke followed by self-conscious implementation of that rule in the face of impulses, wants and needs to smoke.
“In terms of PRIME Theory, the process of smoking cessation therefore involves: forming a personal rule not to smoke followed by selfconscious implementation of that rule in the face of impulses, wants and needs to smoke.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Smokers will form that rule when at the precise moment they have the idea of making the rule and this idea feels more attractive than the idea of continuing to smoke.
“Smokers will form that rule when at the precise moment they: r have the idea of making the rule and r this idea feels more attractive than the idea of continuing to smoke.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The risk of relapse is substantially reduced with each week of abstinence that passes.
“The effect is substantially reduced risk of relapse with each week of abstinence that passes (32).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] source
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- Interpretationnone given
When a lapse occurs, the individual often does not intend to resume smoking permanently but only long enough to address the particular need at that time.
“When this occurs, clinical experience suggests that the individual often does not intend to resume smoking permanently but only long enough to address the particular need at that time.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
After chronic nicotine use, abnormally low levels of dopamine are released when central nervous system nicotine concentrations are depleted.
“Thus while nicotine acutely increases the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens, after chronic use there appears to be abnormally low levels of dopamine released when central nervous system (CNS) nicotine concentrations are depleted (16).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [16] source
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- Interpretationreasoning
These beliefs will lead the smoker to want or need to smoke at times when circumstances make them relevant (e.g., at times of stress).
“These beliefs will lead the smoker to want or need to smoke at times when circumstances make them relevant (e.g., at times of stress).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Persistence of many of the adverse withdrawal symptoms also appears to lead to relapse.
“but persistence of many of the adverse symptoms also appear to lead to relapse (21).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [21] source
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- Premisecitation
The strength of nicotine hunger can be usefully assessed by recording how soon after waking the smoker first lights up a cigarette.
“The strength of this can be usefully assessed by recording how soon after waking the smoker first lights up a cigarette (17,18).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Successfully overcoming urges to smoke may build capacity for self-control.
“On the other hand one study has found that successfully overcoming urges to smoke may build capacity for self-control (27).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [27] source
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- Premisereasoning
Using nicotine patches for 2 weeks prior to the quit date appears to improve long-term abstinence rates.
“This would explain why using nicotine patches for 2 weeks prior to the quit date appears to improve long-term abstinence rates (34);”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [34] source
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- Premisecitation
The extent to which the cigarette is found to be satisfying mediates the progression from lapse to full relapse.
“There is some evidence that this is mediated by the extent to which the cigarette is found to be satisfying (33).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [33] source
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- Interpretationnone given
In the early stages following the quit attempt, cue-driven urges to smoke and the need to smoke will dominate.
“In the early stages following the quit attempt, cue-driven urges to smoke and the need to smoke will dominate.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
With nicotine from NRT competing with nicotine from cigarettes for the receptors, one would expect a partial dissociation between the act of smoking and its effects in the nucleus accumbens.
“With nicotine from the NRT competing with nicotine from cigarettes for the receptors, one would expect a partial dissociation between the act of smoking and its effects in the nucleus accumbens.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Medications that have been shown to substantially improve smokers' chances of achieving long term abstinence are nicotine replacement therapies (NRT), bupropion, varenicline and nortriptyline.
“Medications that have been shown to substantially improve smokers' chances of achieving long term abstinence are nicotine replacement therapies (NRT), bupropion, varenicline and nortriptyline (36)(37)(38).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked- cites [36] Cahill K, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
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- cites [37] Stead L F, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
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- cites [38] Hughes J R, 2007, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
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- May combine two claims. 12
- Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7
May combine two claims.
PremisecitationMental energy is depleted by the exercise of self-control and by depressed mood.
“Mental energy seems to be depleted by the exercise of self-control (and by depressed mood) (4).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
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Classified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationSelf-control involves a sense of self or identity that creates rules (types of plan) which can generate motives (wants and needs) from evaluations (beliefs about what is good or bad).
“In terms of PRIME Theory, this involves a sense of self or identity that creates 'rules' (types of plan) which can generate motives (wants and needs) from evaluations (beliefs about what is good or bad).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe exercise of self-control requires and uses up mental energy; it requires effort.
“An important feature of the exercise of self-control is that it requires and uses up 'mental energy'foot_0 ; i.e., it requires effort.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [4] Baumeister R F, 1994
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenHuman behaviour results at every moment from the interplay of multiple influences on different levels of motivation involving impulses and inhibitions driven by habits and instinctive mechanisms and by wants and needs.
“Thus, we can think of human behaviour as resulting at every moment from the interplay of multiple influences on the different levels of motivation involving impulses and inhibitions driven by habits and instinctive mechanisms and by wants and needs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationCigarette smoking is addictive, and the main reason is that it delivers nicotine to the brain in a convenient, flexible way that allows smokers to control the dose they receive.
“It is now widely acknowledged that cigarette smoking is addictive and that the main reason for this is that it delivers nicotine to the brain in a convenient, flexible way that allows smokers to control the dose they receive (1).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [1] RCP, 2000
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May combine two claims.
PremisecitationEach puff on a cigarette results in rapid absorption of nicotine in the lungs and a rapid increase in nicotine concentration in the brain.
“Each puff on a cigarette results in rapid absorption of nicotine in the lungs and a rapid increase in nicotine concentration in the brain (6).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [6] source
Not checked in the free run.
Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).
Premisenone givenThe motivation for addiction may arise from a number of sources at different levels of the motivational system.
“The motivation may arise from a number of sources at different levels of the motivational system.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationChronic changes in the central nervous system lead to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depressed mood, anxiety, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and increased appetite) that make the experience of not smoking aversive and generate the need to smoke.
“In addition to this, chronic changes in the CNS lead to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depressed mood, anxiety, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and increased appetite) that make the experience of not smoking aversive and generate the need to smoke (19,20).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenStopping smoking almost always requires the exercise of self-control.
“Stopping smoking almost always requires the exercise of self-control.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationSmokers experience a reduced capacity to gain enjoyment from and be rewarded by other stimuli, which probably results from a rebound of the effect of nicotine in acting as a pleasure amplifier.
“Smokers also experience a reduced capacity to gain enjoyment from and be rewarded by other stimuli, which probably results from a rebound of the effect of nicotine in acting as a pleasure amplifier, as described earlier (22).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Interpretationnone givenTransitions can occur suddenly between any state and any other state, depending on the momentary balance of wants and needs.
“Transitions can occur suddenly between any state and any other state, depending on the momentary balance of wants and needs.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningIf the rule is that smoking is not permitted at all, the boundaries are more clearly defined and the inhibition of smoking will be more powerful and consistent.
“On the other hand, if the rule is that smoking is not permitted at all, the boundaries are more clearly defined and the inhibition of smoking will be more powerful and consistent.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
InterpretationreasoningOne reason for the association between past failed quit attempts and subsequent failure is that it often requires a long period of recuperation during which reserves of mental energy are restored.
“Although there may be a number of reasons for this, one obvious one is that it often requires a long period of recuperation during which reserves of mental energy is restored.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
Interpretationnone givenOvercoming addiction to cigarettes involves making a serious quit attempt and then maintaining abstinence in the face of motivation to smoke coming from multiple sources.
“Overcoming addiction to cigarettes involves a) making a serious quit attempt and then b) maintaining abstinence in the face of motivation to smoke coming from multiple sources.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationWanting to smoke (enjoyment of smoking) deters quit attempts while needing to smoke (anticipated relief from nicotine hunger) and cue-driven impulses to smoke (experienced as 'urges') lead to relapse after the quit attempt has been started.
“There is evidence emerging that wanting to smoke (enjoyment of smoking) deters quit attempts while needing to smoke (anticipated relief from nicotine hunger) and cue driven impulses to smoke (experienced as 'urges') lead to relapse after the quit attempt has been started (18,24).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningThis makes the act of smoking enjoyable, hence makes smokers want to smoke.
“This makes the act of smoking enjoyable, hence makes smokers want to smoke.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningAccording to PRIME Theory, the process of smoking cessation can be encapsulated in a simple 4-state model in terms of the rule in operation: Smoking (no rule), Not smoking (I do not smoke), Attempting to stop (I am trying not to smoke), and Planning to stop (I have made a definite plan to stop in the near future).
“According to PRIME Theory, therefore, the process of smoking cessation can be encapsulated in a simple 4-state model in terms of the rule that is in operation (Figure 2): 1. Smoking (no rule), 2.Not smoking (I do not smoke), 3. Attempting to stop (I am trying not to smoke), and 4. Planning to stop (I have made a definite plan to stop in the near future)”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationLate relapse may involve continuing impulses and needs in a minority of heavily addicted smokers, but beliefs that smoking helps relieve stress can provoke relapse, presumably in response to stressful events.
“Late relapse may involve continuing impulses and needs in a minority of heavily addicted smokers, but it also appears that beliefs that smoking helps relieve stress can provoke relapse, presumably in response to stressful events (24).”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [24] source
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May combine two claims.
InterpretationreasoningAddiction to cigarettes involves multiple sources of motivation to smoke: wanting to smoke for enjoyment acting to deter quit attempts; cue-driven impulses, needing to smoke because of nicotine hunger and adverse withdrawal symptoms, reduced self-regulatory capacity, and functional beliefs about smoking (particularly its capacity to reduce stress) leading to lapse and then relapse.
“Bearing in mind the multiple levels at which human motivation can operate, we can think of addiction to cigarettes as involving multiple sources of motivation to smoke: 1. wanting to smoke for the enjoyment acting to deter quit attempts; 2. cue-driven impulses to smoke, needing to smoking because of 'nicotine hunger' and adverse withdrawal symptoms, reducedself-regulatory capacity, and functional”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
The authors state this as an assumption.
The brain recovers its normal functioning during abstinence, leading to decline in cue-driven impulses, nicotine hunger and withdrawal symptoms.
“presumably as the brain recovers its normal functioning.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The SNAP model suggests that smoking cessation involves moving through the four stages of smoking, attempting to quit, planning to quit and not smoking.
“The Smoking, Not smoking, Attempting to quit, Planning to quit model (SNAP) 17 suggests that smoking cessation involves moving through the four stages of (1) smoking, (2) attempting to quit, (3) planning to quit and (4) not smoking.”
From Service‐user experiences of an integrated psychological intervention for depression or anxiety and tobacco smoking in improving access to psychological therapies services: A qualitative investigation into mechanisms of change in quitting smoking. (2023) · cites this paper as [17]
In “The process of smoking cessation,” the paper describes a four-state model containing smoking, attempting to stop, planning to stop, and not smoking. It does not present them as stages traversed in the claimed order: it says transitions can occur between any two states. (LLM, conf=0.88)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFor one participant, the intervention helped her approach the right time, shifting from attempting to quit to planning to quit, consistent with the SNAP model.
“This suggests that the intervention helped her shift from attempting to quit to planning to quit, a shift consistent with the SNAP model of smoking cessation 17”
Certain highly addictive drugs such as nicotine are exceedingly 'wanted' despite producing little to no feelings of pleasure or euphoria.
“In fact, certain highly addictive drugs such as nicotine are exceedingly ‘wanted’ despite producing little to no feelings of pleasure or euphoria (Benowitz, 1996; Isomura, Suzuki, & Murai, 2014; West, 2009), and drug self-administration can be maintained in the absence of any subjective pleasure (Fischman & Foltin, 1992).”
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Self-citationEffects of abstinence from tobacco: Valid symptoms and time course
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“In addition to this, chronic changes in the CNS lead to unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (irritability, depressed mood, anxiety, restlessness, difficulty concentrating and increased appetite) that make the experience of not smoking aversive and generate the need to smoke (19, 20).”
BackgroundCorrigall, W. A., Coen, K. M., & Adamson, K. L. (1994) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0006-8993(94)90401-4 · Cited by 740 · see citing works
Zhou, X., Nonnemaker, J., Sherrill, B., Gilsenan, A. W., Coste, F., & West, R. (2009) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2008.11.013 · Cited by 508 · see citing works
Self-citationA day at a time: Predicting smoking lapse from daily urge.
Shiffman, S. M., Engberg, J., Paty, J. A., Perz, W. G., Gnys, M., Kassel, J. D., & Hickcox, M. (1997) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037//0021-843x.106.1.104 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
Piasecki, T. M. (2006) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2005.11.007 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
The relevance and treatment of cue-induced cravings in tobacco dependence
Ferguson, S. G., & Shiffman, S. S. (2008) · Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment · doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.06.005 · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Pons, S., Fattore, L., Cossu, G., Tolu, S., Porcu, E., McIntosh, J. M., Changeux, J. P., Maskos, U., & Fratta, W. (2008) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.3918-08.2008 · Cited by 312 · see citing works
“Catastrophic” pathways to smoking cessation: findings from national survey
West, R., & Sohal, T. (2006) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.38723.573866.ae · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Self-citationSeverity of withdrawal symptoms as a predictor of outcome of an attempt to quit smoking
West, R. J., Hajek, P., & Belcher, M. (1989) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291700005705 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Self-citationMotivation: The Organization of Action
Mook, D. G. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 278 · see citing works
A day at a time: Predicting smoking lapse from daily urge.
Shiffman, S. M., Engberg, J., Paty, J. A., et al. (1997) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.106.1.104 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Cigarette Smoking: A Dependence on High-Nicotine Boli
Russell, M. A. H., & Feyerabend, C. (1978) · Drug Metabolism Reviews · doi:10.3109/03602537808993776 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
Balfour, D. (2004) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200412331324965 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Dynamic Self-Efficacy and Outcome Expectancies: Prediction of Smoking Lapse and Relapse.
Gwaltney, C. J., Shiffman, S., Balabanis, M. H., & Paty, J. A. (2005) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.114.4.661 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
The Role of Nicotine in Smoking: A Dual-Reinforcement Model
Caggiula, A. R., Donny, E. C., Palmatier, M. I., Liu, X., Chaudhri, N., & Sved, A. F. (2008) · Nebraska Symposium on Motivation · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-78748-0_6 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
West, R., Baker, C. L., Cappelleri, J. C., & Bushmakin, A. G. (2008) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-007-1041-3 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Self-citationHughes, J. (2007) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200701188927 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Foulds, J. (2006) · International Journal of Clinical Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1368-5031.2006.00955.x · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Intentions to quit smoking change over short periods of time
Hughes, J. R., Keely, J. P., Fagerstrom, K. O., & Callas, P. W. (2005) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2004.08.011 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Motives for smoking and their correlates in clients attending Stop Smoking treatment services
McEwen, A., West, R., & McRobbie, H. (2008) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/14622200802027248 · Cited by 120 · cited 2× · see citing works
“In particular, they believe that it helps to control stress (23).”
BackgroundSelf-citationShiffman, S., Ferguson, S. G., & Gwaltney, C. J. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-005-0175-4 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
The Neuronal Pathways Mediating the Behavioral and Addictive Properties of Nicotine
Balfour, D. J. K. (2009) · Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-69248-5_8 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
A double-blind placebo controlled experimental study of nicotine: I—effects on incentive motivation
Dawkins, L., Powell, J. H., West, R., Powell, J., & Pickering, A. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0588-8 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Self-citationNicotine patch therapy prior to quitting smoking: a meta‐analysis
Shiffman, S., & Ferguson, S. G. (2008) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2008.02138.x · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Dawkins, L., Powell, J. H., West, R., Powell, J., & Pickering, A. (2007) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0634-6 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationSeidner Burling, A., & Burling, T. (2003) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1080/1462220031000158708 · Cited by 71 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The strength of this can be usefully assessed by recording how soon after waking the smoker first lights up a cigarette (17, 18).”
BackgroundIt is possible to help smokers in early motivational stages to quit
Pisinger, C. H., Vestbo, J., Borch‐Johnsen, K., & Jørgensen, T. (2004) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2004.06.011 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Laviolette, S. R., Lauzon, N. M., Bishop, S. F., Sun, N., & Tan, H. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1371-08.2008 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Smoking cessation and financial stress
Siahpush, M., Spittal, M., & Singh, G. K. (2007) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdm070 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Yong, H.-H., & Borland, R. (2008) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.3(suppl.).s216 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Defining and Assessing Nicotine Dependence in Humans
West, R. (2006) · Novartis Foundation Symposia · doi:10.1002/9780470029237.ch4 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Self-citationDo resisted temptations during smoking cessation deplete or augment self-control resources?
O'Connell, K. A., Schwartz, J. E., & Shiffman, S. (2008) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.22.4.486 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Shiffman, S. (2008) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2008.07.019 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Nicotine is Addictive: The Issue of Free Choice
West, R. (1995) · Effects of Nicotine on Biological Systems II · doi:10.1007/978-3-0348-7445-8_34 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 6
- RCP, 2000, Nicotine Addiction in Britain
- Ferguson S G, 2008, J Subst Abuse Treat
- Pisinger C, 2005, Prev Med, 40, 278
- Cahill K, 2008, Cochrane Database Syst Rev
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Tobacco smoking: health impact, prevalence, correlates and interventions
West, R. (2017) · Psychology & Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2017.1325890 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Self-citationMichie, S., Hyder, N., Walia, A., & West, R. (2011) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.11.016 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Self-citationLe Foll, B., Piper, M. E., Fowler, C. D., Tonstad, S., Bierut, L., Lu, L., Jha, P., & Hall, W. D. (2022) · Nature Reviews Disease Primers · doi:10.1038/s41572-022-00346-w · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Kotz, D., Brown, J., & West, R. (2012) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.07.012 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Self-citationRoles of "wanting" and "liking" in motivating behavior: gambling, food, and drug addictions
Robinson, M. J. F., Fischer, A. M., Ahuja, A., Lesser, E. N., & Maniates, H. (2015) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2015_387 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Fidler, J. A., Shahab, L., & West, R. (2010) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03226.x · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Self-citationRhodes, R. E., & Yao, C. A. (2015) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-015-0168-6 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
West, R., Walia, A., Hyder, N., Shahab, L., & Michie, S. (2010) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntq074 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Self-citationRhodes, R. E., Kaushal, N., & Quinlan, A. (2016) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2016.1143334 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
A Mobile App to Aid Smoking Cessation: Preliminary Evaluation of SmokeFree28
Ubhi, H. K., Michie, S., Kotz, D., Wong, W. C., & West, R. (2015) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.3479 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Self-citationPredictors of smoking cessation during pregnancy: a systematic review and meta‐analysis
Riaz, M., Lewis, S., Naughton, F., & Ussher, M. (2018) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.14135 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Identifying Evidence-Based Competences Required to Deliver Behavioural Support for Smoking Cessation
Michie, S., Churchill, S., & West, R. (2011) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-010-9235-z · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Self-citationBuczkowski, K., Marcinowicz, L., Czachowski, S., & Piszczek, E. (2014) · Patient Preference and Adherence · doi:10.2147/ppa.s67767 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Smit, E. S., de Vries, H., & Hoving, C. (2012) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.1812 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Gannon, A. M., Stämpfli, M. R., & Foster, W. G. (2013) · Biology of Reproduction · doi:10.1095/biolreprod.112.106617 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Vangeli, E., & West, R. (2011) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.2044-8287.2011.02031.x · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of action planning and plan enactment for smoking cessation
de Vries, H., Eggers, S. M., & Bolman, C. A. W. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-393 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
USSHER, M. H., Kakar, G., Hájek, P., & West, R. (2015) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2015.10.020 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Self-citationKock, L. S., Brown, J., Hiscock, R., Tattan‐Birch, H., Smith, C. A., & Shahab, L. (2019) · The Lancet Public Health · doi:10.1016/s2468-2667(19)30220-8 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Tombor, I., Shahab, L., Brown, J., & West, R. (2013) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2013.09.001 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of desire, duty and intention in predicting attempts to quit smoking
Smit, E. S., Fidler, J. A., & West, R. (2010) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03317.x · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Self-citationFidler, J. A., & West, R. (2010) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.10.009 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Self-citationSpecifying Evidence-Based Behavior Change Techniques to Aid Smoking Cessation in Pregnancy
Lorencatto, F., West, R., & Michie, S. (2012) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr324 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-citationUnderstanding action control of parental support behavior for child physical activity.
Rhodes, R. E., Spence, J. C., Berry, T. R., Deshpande, S., Faulkner, G., Latimer‐Cheung, A. E., O’Reilly, N., & Tremblay, M. S. (2015) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000233 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
(2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444318852 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Hitchman, S. C., Fong, G. T., Zanna, M. P., Thrasher, J. F., & Laux, F. L. (2014) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/a0036483 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Hellberg, S. N., Russell, T. I., & Robinson, M. J. F. (2019) · Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-018-00662-3 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“…addictive drugs such as nicotine are exceedingly Bwanted^ despite producing little to no feelings of pleasure or euphoria (Benowitz, 1996; Isomura, Suzuki, & Murai, 2014; West, 2009), and drug self-administration can be maintained in the absence of any subjective pleasure (Fischman & Foltin, 1992).”
Should cigarette pack sizes be capped?
Blackwell, A. K. M., Lee, I., Scollo, M., Wakefield, M. A., Munafo, M. R., & Marteau, T. M. (2019) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.14770 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Michie, S., Brown, J., Geraghty, A. W. A., Miller, S., Yardley, L., Gardner, B., Shahab, L., McEwen, A., Stapleton, J., & West, R. (2012) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13142-012-0135-6 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Self-citationWest, R., Evans, A., & Michie, S. (2011) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr120 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Self-citationFerrer, R. A., Klein, W. M. P., Zajac, L. E., Land, S. R., & Ling, B. S. (2011) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-011-9371-3 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Lorencatto, F., West, R., Bruguera, C., Brose, L. S., & Michie, S. (2015) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-015-9755-7 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Self-citationA comparison of the characteristics of iOS and Android users of a smoking cessation app
Ubhi, H. K., Kotz, D., Michie, S., van Schayck, O. C. P., & West, R. (2017) · Translational Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s13142-016-0455-z · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Self-citationLorencatto, F., West, R., Seymour, N., & Michie, S. (2013) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0032106 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationShahab, L., Brose, L. S., & West, R. (2013) · CNS Drugs · doi:10.1007/s40263-013-0116-4 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationDo components of current ‘hardcore smoker’ definitions predict quitting behaviour?
Ip, D. T. W., Cohen, J. E., Bondy, S. J., Chaiton, M., Selby, P. L., Schwartz, R. M., McDonald, P., Garcia, J., & Ferrence, R. G. (2011) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2011.03674.x · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Cue-Induced Smoking Urges Deplete Cigarette Smokers’ Self-Control Resources
Hagger, M. S., Leaver, E., Esser, K., Leung, C., Pas, N. T., Keatley, D. A., Chan, D. K. C., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2013) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12160-013-9520-8 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Richardson, S., Langley, T. E., Szatkowski, L. C., Sims, M., Gilmore, A., McNeill, A. D., & Lewis, S. (2014) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2014.08.030 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
Brown, J., Michie, S., Geraghty, A. W. A., Miller, S., Yardley, L., Gardner, B., Shahab, L., Stapleton, J., & West, R. (2012) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.05.016 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Self-citationSmit, E. S., Hoving, C., Cox, V. C. M., & de Vries, H. (2012) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyr099 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Dingle, G. A., & Carter, N. A. (2017) · Musicae Scientiae · doi:10.1177/1029864916682822 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Taggar, J., Lewis, S., Docherty, G., Bauld, L., McEwen, A., & Coleman, T. J. (2015) · Substance Abuse Treatment Prevention and Policy · doi:10.1186/s13011-015-0011-8 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Husband, C., Higgins, J., & Rhodes, R. E. (2019) · Health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/21642850.2019.1600407 · Cited by 36 · see citing works
Beard, E., Vangeli, E., Michie, S., & West, R. (2011) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntr297 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationRiaz, M. A., Lewis, S., Coleman, T. J., Aveyard, P. N., West, R., Naughton, F., & USSHER, M. H. (2016) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.13395 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Self-citationHerbeć, A., Beard, E., Brown, J., Gardner, B., Tombor, I., & West, R. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-1070 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
Self-citationWeaver, F. M., Smith, B., LaVela, S. L., Evans, C. T., Ullrich, P. M., Miskevics, S. A., Goldstein, B., Strayer, J. R., & Burns, S. P. (2011) · Journal of Spinal Cord Medicine · doi:10.1179/107902610x12911165975061 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The effects of varenicline on stress-induced and cue-induced craving for cigarettes
Ray, L. A., Lunny, K., Bujarski, S., Moallem, N., Krull, J. L., & Miotto, K. (2013) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2012.12.015 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Jackson, S. E., Brown, J., & Jarvis, M. J. (2021) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15403 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Cigarette craving and withdrawal symptoms during temporary abstinence and the effect of nicotine gum
Brown, J., Hajek, P., McRobbie, H., Locker, J., Gillison, F., McEwen, A., Beard, E., & West, R. (2013) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-013-3100-2 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Self-citationPerski, O., Herd, N. L., West, R., & Brown, J. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.11.030 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Self-citationLewis, A. L., Jolly, K. B., Adab, P., Daley, A., Farley, A., Jebb, S. A., Lycett, D., Clarke, S., Christian-Brown, A., Jin, J., et al. (2013) · Trials · doi:10.1186/1745-6215-14-393 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Filippou, J., Cheong, C., & Cheong, C. (2016) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2016.05.002 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Caponnetto, P., Polosa, R., Robson, D., & Bauld, L. (2020) · Health Psychology Research · doi:10.4081/hpr.2020.9042 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Associations between self-control and dimensions of nicotine dependence: A preliminary report
Wilson, S. J., & MacLean, R. R. (2012) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.11.004 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Characterizing tobacco control mass media campaigns in E ngland
Langley, T. E., Lewis, S., McNeill, A. D., Gilmore, A., Szatkowski, L. C., West, R., & Sims, M. (2013) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12293 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Self-citationDeveloping General Models and Theories of Addiction
West, R., Christmas, S., Hastings, J., & Michie, S. (2018) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315689197-14 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Self-citationEx-smokers are happier than current smokers among Chinese adults in Hong Kong.
Wang, M., Wang, X., Lam, T.-H., Viswanath, K., & Chan, S. (2014) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.12531 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Shahab, L., McEwen, A., & West, R. (2011) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2204-9 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationSmoking intentions and mood preceding lapse after completion of treatment to aid smoking cessation
Vangeli, E., Stapleton, J., & West, R. (2010) · Patient Education and Counseling · doi:10.1016/j.pec.2010.01.024 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationReyes, F. S. L. G. D., Mamaril, A. C. C., Matias, T. J. P., Tronco, M. K. V., Samson, G. R., Javier, N. D., Fadriquela, A., Antonio, J. M., & Sajo, M. E. J. (2021) · Processes · doi:10.3390/pr9111876 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Fredman Stein, K., Sawyer, K., Daryan, S., Allen, J., & Taylor, G. (2023) · Health Expectations · doi:10.1111/hex.13684 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Antismoking Ads at the Point of Sale: The Influence of Ad Type and Context on Ad Reactions
Kim, A. E., Nonnemaker, J. M., Guillory, J. E., Shafer, P. R., Parvanta, S., Holloway, J. W., & Farrelly, M. C. (2017) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2017.1311970 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Mooren, K., van der Linden, G., Pool, K., & Engels, Y. (2019) · International Journal of COPD · doi:10.2147/copd.s216274 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The PRIME approach to giving up smoking
McEwen, A., & West, R. (2010) · Practice Nursing · doi:10.12968/pnur.2010.21.3.46936 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Self-citationVariation in saliva cotinine as a function of self-reported attempts to reduce cigarette consumption
Fidler, J. A., Stapleton, J. A., & West, R. (2011) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-011-2317-1 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationBuckell, J., Hensher, D. A., & Hess, S. (2020) · Health Economics · doi:10.1002/hec.4173 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
West, R., & Cox, S. (2021) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/add.15754 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Self-citationRichardson, S., McNeill, A. D., Langley, T. E., Sims, M., Gilmore, A., Szatkowski, L. C., Heath, R., Fong, G. T., & Lewis, S. (2014) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-14-432 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Exenatide once weekly for smoking cessation
Yammine, L., Kosten, T. R., Cinciripini, P. M., Green, C. E., Meininger, J. C., Minnix, J. A., & Newton, T. F. (2018) · Medicine · doi:10.1097/md.0000000000009567 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Yoder, J. R., & Caserta, D. A. (2016) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x16651903 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Psychological Features of Smokers
Gülşen, A., & Uygur, B. (2018) · Respiratory Care · doi:10.4187/respcare.06287 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Gould, G. S., Watt, K., McEwen, A., Cadet‐James, Y., & CLOUGH, A. R. (2014) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-004887 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Goeders, N. E., Cohen, A., Fox, B. S., Azar, M. R., George, O., & Koob, G. F. (2012) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-012-2682-4 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Filippou, J., & Cheong, C. (2015) · Journal of the Association for Information Systems · Cited by 12 · see citing works
A qualitative approach exploring the experiences of smoking and quitting attempts in type 1 diabetes
Ghazaleh, H. A., Mulnier, H. E., & Duaso, M. J. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Nursing · doi:10.1111/jocn.14499 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
West, R., & Brown, J. (2013) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118484890.ch9 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationA Cross-Sectional Study of Happiness and Smoking Cessation Among Parents
Drehmer, J. E., Walters, B. H., Ossip, D. J., Nabi-Burza, E., & Winickoff, J. P. (2015) · The Journal of Smoking Cessation · doi:10.1017/jsc.2015.6 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-control and smoking in a sample of adults living with HIV/AIDS: A cross-sectional survey
Weinberger, A. H., Pang, R. D., Seng, E. K., Levin, J. R., Esan, H., Segal, K. S., & Shuter, J. (2020) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2020.106807 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Montes, K. S. (2019) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-019-09885-6 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Wee, L. H., Shahab, L., Bulgiba, A. M., & West, R. (2011) · The Journal of Smoking Cessation · doi:10.1375/jsc.6.1.37 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationWant, need and habit as drivers of smoking behaviour: A preliminary analysis
Wehbe, L., Ubhi, H. K., & West, R. (2017) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.07.004 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Self-citationWeinberger, A. H., Pang, R. D., Ferrer, M., Kashan, R. S., Estey, D. R., Segal, K. S., & Esan, H. (2021) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/adb0000672 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Smith, A. L. (2020) · International Journal of Drug Policy · doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2020.102942 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Psychologische Suchttheorien als Erklärungsansätze
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Brown, E., Smith, D. M., & Armitage, C. J. (2018) · Annals of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1093/abm/kay056 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Characterization and prediction of gambling behavior in adolescents using the COM-B model
Guijarro, Á. B., Irles, D. L., Segura, J., & Moriano, J. A. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0277520 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Veilleux, J. C. (2019) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.04.012 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
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Cigarette pack size and consumption: a randomized cross‐over trial
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Baby Be Smoke Free: Teenage smoking cessation pilot
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When should we measure self-efficacy as an aid to smoking cessation?
de Granda‐Orive, J. I., Pascual-Lledó, J. F., Solano-Reina, S., Asensio-Sánchez, S., García-Rueda, M., Martínez-Muñiz, M. Á., Lázaro-Asegurado, L., Lühning, S., Bujulbasich, D., Pendino, R., et al. (2019) · Archivos de Bronconeumología · doi:10.1016/j.arbr.2019.04.010 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Performance of Smokers with DSM-5 Tobacco Use Disorder in Time-Based Complex Prospective Memory
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The development of a framework for effective interdisciplinary behaviour change project management
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- Authors
- West, R.
- Affiliations
- University College London (GB)
- Corresponding author
- West, Robert
- ORCID
- West, Robert
- Venue
- COPD: Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
- Publisher
- Informa UK Limited
- Published
- 2009-01
- Volume
- 6
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 277-283
- ISSN
- 1541-2555 (ISSN-L)
- 1541-2563
- OpenAlex
- W2158717404
- Semantic Scholar
- 57d722905c974bbd721dcc37dbfa8ef436a045b8
- Cited by
- 145
- References
- 41
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 2 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 9 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 9 · 2013: 16 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 1.17
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- COPD Journal of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Smoking Behavior and Cessation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Substance Abuse Treatment and Outcomes
- Keywords
- tobacco dependence, smoking cessation, nicotine, self-control, inhibitory control, nicotine withdrawal, relapse
- MeSH terms
- Smoking Prevention, Humans, Motivation, Smoking, Tobacco Use Disorder, Smoking Cessation, Behavior, Addictive
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.
Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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