Myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein synthesis rates do not differ in young men following the ingestion of carbohydrate with milk protein, whey, or micellar casein after concurrent resistance-and endurance-type exercise
Open accessAbstract
BACKGROUND: Whey and micellar casein are high-quality dairy proteins that can stimulate postprandial muscle protein synthesis rates. How whey and casein compare with milk protein in their capacity to stimulate postprandial myofibrillar (MyoPS) and mitochondrial (MitoPS) protein synthesis rates during postexercise recovery is currently unknown. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare postprandial MyoPS and MitoPS rates after protein-carbohydrate co-ingestion with milk protein, whey, or micellar casein during recovery from a single bout of concurrent resistance- and endurance-type exercise in young healthy men. METHODS: In a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group design, 48 healthy, young, recreationally active men (mean ± SEM age: 23 ± 0.3 y) received a primed continuous infusion of L-[ring-13C6]-phenylalanine and L-[ring-3,5-2H2]-tyrosine and ingested 45 g carbohydrate with 0 g protein (CHO), 20 g milk protein (MILK), 20 g whey protein (WHEY), or 20 g micellar casein protein (CASEIN) after a sequential bout of resistance- and endurance-type exercise (i.e., concurrent exercise). Blood and muscle biopsies were collected over 360 min during recovery from exercise to assess MyoPS and MitoPS rates and signaling through mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1). RESULTS: Despite temporal differences in postprandial plasma leucine concentrations between treatments (P < 0.001), MyoPS rates over 360 min of recovery did not differ between treatments (CHO: 0.049% ± 0.003%/h; MILK: 0.059% ± 0.003%/h; WHEY: 0.054% ± 0.002%/h; CASEIN: 0.059% ± 0.005%/h; P = 0.11). When MILK, WHEY, and CASEIN were pooled into a single group (PROTEIN), protein co-ingestion resulted in greater MyoPS rates compared with CHO (PROTEIN: 0.057% ± 0.002%/h; CHO: 0.049% ± 0.003%/h; P = 0.04). MitoPS rates and signaling through the mTORC1 pathway were similar between treatments. CONCLUSION: MyoPS and MitoPS rates do not differ after co-ingestion of either milk protein, whey protein, or micellar casein protein with carbohydrate during recovery from a single bout of concurrent resistance- and endurance-type exercise in recreationally active young men. Co-ingestion of protein with carbohydrate results in greater MyoPS, but not MitoPS rates, when compared with the ingestion of carbohydrate only during recovery from concurrent exercise. This trial was registered at Nederlands Trial Register: NTR5098.
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Muscle contraction in the form of resistance- or endurance-type exercise provides additional stimulus to upregulate MPS in both an additive and independent manner.
“Muscle contraction in the form of resistance- or endurance-type exercise provides additional stimulus to upregulate MPS in both an additive and independent manner [[51], [52], [53]].”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [53]
Differences between animal- and plant-based protein sources are absent when higher doses of protein (approximately 30 g protein) are compared, though this is not always the case.
“An emerging theme is that differences between animal- and plant- based sources are absent when higher doses of protein (presumably obviating any individual amino acid deficiencies) are compared (∼30 g protein), though this is not always the case [53,86].”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [53]
There is a growing number of studies that contradict, or at least obfuscate, the narrative that nonanimal proteins are inferior.
“However, there is a growing number of studies that contradict, or at least obfuscate, this narrative [53,[88], [89], [90], [91]].”
From Nutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [53]
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“However, MyoPS rates were elevated by ∼39%, ∼27%, and ∼41% in MILK, WHEY, and CASEIN when compared with CHO during the late recovery phase (Figure 5A), which appears consistent with the notion that dietary protein-derived amino acids serve to sustain exerciseinduced increases in MPS rates (37).”
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“All previous studies to date examining the impact of protein source on postprandial MPS rates after exercise in humans have been conducted after single-mode resistance-type exercise (6, 11, 13, 14, 33).”
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“The majority of studies examining nutrition and exercise interactions on MPS have focused on protein ingestion during recovery after resistance-type exercise (25).”
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“Both single-mode resistance- (47) and endurance-type exercise (48, 49) serve as potent contractile stimuli to increase mTORC1 and its downstream targets in human muscle.”
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“Another possibility is that the endurance-type exercise bout in the current study interfered with mTORC1 related signaling responses to the prior bout of resistance-type exercise, an effect demonstrated in rodents (51), but not currently supported in humans (52).”
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“The lack of difference in MitoPS rates between PROTEIN and CHO in the current study is in line with previous studies that found no difference in postprandial MitoPS rates after protein ingestion before (29) or after exercise (9, 27, 28) when compared with MitoPS rates measured in response to exercise or protein ingest…”
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“Results from these studies either demonstrate a superior effect of whey (10, 11), or fail to detect any differences between proteins (6, 14, 15) in their capacity to increase postexercise MPS rates.”
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“Another possibility is that the endurance-type exercise bout in the current study interfered with mTORC1 related signaling responses to the prior bout of resistance-type exercise, an effect demonstrated in rodents (51), but not currently supported in humans (52).”
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“(40) recently reported that ingestion of soluble milk protein but not casein protein increased postprandial MitoPS rates in healthy elderly men, demonstrating that the type of ingested protein is important when considering the impact of protein intake on postprandial MitoPS rates.”
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“Both single-mode resistance- (47) and endurance-type exercise (48, 49) serve as potent contractile stimuli to increase mTORC1 and its downstream targets in human muscle.”
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“Bovine milk protein and its 2 major fractions, whey and micellar casein, are among the highest-quality sources of dietary protein based on current indexes of protein quality (22).”
BackgroundProtein Ingestion Increases Myofibrillar Protein Synthesis after Concurrent Exercise
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“(27) reported a large, unexpected variability in MyoPS and MitoPS rates during recovery from concurrent exercise.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialProtein–Leucine Fed Dose Effects on Muscle Protein Synthesis after Endurance Exercise
ROWLANDS, D. S., Nelson, A. R., Phillips, S. M., Faulkner, J., CLARKE, J., Burd, N. A., Moore, D. R., & Stellingwerff, T. (2014) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000000447 · Cited by 59 · cited 1× · see citing works
“Although protein ingestion stimulates increased MyoPS rates after resistance- (7, 32, 35) and endurance-type exercise (9, 39), the effect of protein ingestion on postprandial MitoPS rates in human muscle is less clear, but may also depend on the dose and/or source of ingested protein.”
BackgroundSawan, S. A., van Vliet, S., Parel, J. T., Beals, J. W., Mazzulla, M., West, D. W. D., Philp, A., Li, Z., Paluska, S. A., Burd, N. A., et al. (2018) · Physiological Reports · doi:10.14814/phy2.13628 · Cited by 46 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The lack of difference in MitoPS rates between PROTEIN and CHO in the current study is in line with previous studies that found no difference in postprandial MitoPS rates after protein ingestion before (29) or after exercise (9, 27, 28) when compared with MitoPS rates measured in response to exercise or protein ingest…”
BackgroundResultProtein-Leucine Fed Dose Effects on Muscle Protein Synthesis after Endurance Exercise
ROWLANDS, D. S., Nelson, A. R., Phillips, S. M., et al. (2014) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/01.mss.0000493466.37730.42 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
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“Recent research has demonstrated increased postprandial MitoPS rates under resting conditions after the ingestion of 36 g (41), but not 18 g (28) of protein, hence future studies should evaluate whether MitoPS rates are increased in response to greater doses (e.”
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The anabolic response to plant-based protein ingestion
Pinckaers, P. J. M., Trommelen, J., Snijders, T., & van Loon, L. J. C. (2021) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01540-8 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Gorissen, S. H., Trommelen, J., Kouw, I. W., Kouw, I. W., Pennings, B., Pennings, B., Wall, B. T., Churchward-Venne, T. A., Horstman, A. M., Koopman, R., et al. (2020) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxaa024 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Churchward-Venne, T. A., Pinckaers, P. J., Smeets, J. S., Betz, M. W., Senden, J. M., Goessens, J. P., Gijsen, A. P., Rollo, I., Verdijk, L. B., & van Loon, L. J. (2020) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa073 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“recent work demonstrating no differences in postprandial MyoPS or MitoPS rates between the ingestion of milk protein, whey, and micellar casein (24), or whey, soy, and leucine-enriched soy protein (23) with carbohydrate during recovery from concurrent exercise, the current findings may extend to the use of other high-…”
ResultMaximizing Post-exercise Anabolism: The Case for Relative Protein Intakes
Moore, D. R. (2019) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2019.00147 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
“27 g/kg) of milk protein (whey, casein, and milk protein concentrate) compared to a protein-free control after an acute bout of concurrent exercise (71), which is slightly lower than the reported ∼32% difference in myofibrillar protein synthetic rates between 25 g of whey (∼0.”
BackgroundPinckaers, P. J. M., Kouw, I. W. K., Hendriks, F. K., van Kranenburg, J. M. X., de Groot, L. C. P. G. M., Verdijk, L. B., Snijders, T., & van Loon, L. J. C. (2021) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114521000635 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
“To minimise dilution of the steady-state plasma L-[ring-(13)C6]phenylalanine precursor pool, the phenylalanine content of each protein drink was enriched with 3·85 % free, crystalline L-[ring-(13)C6]-phenylalanine((21,27)).”
Zaromskyte, G., Prokopidis, K., Ioannidis, T., Tipton, K. D., & Witard, O. C. (2021) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2021.685165 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Milk proteins: Processing, gastric coagulation, amino acid availability and muscle protein synthesis
Horstman, A. M. H., & Huppertz, T. (2022) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2022.2078782 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
“Similar effects are observed for the comparison of MCI to other whey protein products, i.e., WPI (Churchward-Venne et al. 2019) and WPC from cheese whey (Horstman et al. 2021).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPinckaers, P. J., Domić, J., Petrick, H. L., Holwerda, A. M., Trommelen, J., Hendriks, F. K., Houben, L. H. P., Goessens, J. P. B., van Kranenburg, J. M. X., Senden, J. M., et al. (2023) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2023.11.004 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Morgan, P. T., Harris, D. O., Marshall, R. N., Quinlan, J. I., Edwards, S. J., Allen, S., & Breen, L. (2021) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxab055 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“, concurrent), in which participants performed a 30-min continuous cycle following resistance exercise (45, 46).”
BackgroundResultCalvez, J., Benoit, S., Piedcoq, J., Khodorova, N., Azzout‐Marniche, D., Tomé, D., Benamouzig, R., Airinei, G., & Gaudichon, C. (2020) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa274 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Churchward-Venne, T. A., Pinckaers, P. J. M., Smeets, J. S. J., Peeters, W. M., Zorenc, A. H., Schierbeek, H., Rollo, I., Verdijk, L. B., & van Loon, L. J. C. (2019) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxy251 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Alternative dietary protein sources to support healthy and active skeletal muscle aging
van der Heijden, I., Monteyne, A. J., Stephens, F. B., & Wall, B. T. (2023) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuac049 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Hartono, F. A., Martin-Arrowsmith, P. W., Peeters, W., & Churchward‐Venne, T. A. (2022) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-021-01620-9 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
“[65] Yes Yes NR Yes NR Yes NA NA NA Yes Yes Yes Yes NR Good”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNutritional Considerations for the Vegan Athlete
West, S., Monteyne, A. J., van der Heijden, I., Stephens, F. B., & Wall, B. T. (2023) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.advnut.2023.04.012 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Sustainable Diets for Athletes
Meyer, N. L., Reguant-Closa, A., & Nemecek, T. (2020) · Current Nutrition Reports · doi:10.1007/s13668-020-00318-0 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Joanisse, S., McKendry, J., Lim, C., Nunes, E. A., Stokes, T., Mcleod, J. C., & Phillips, S. M. (2021) · Clinical Nutrition Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.nutos.2021.01.005 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Fractional synthetic rates in myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein fractions were equivalent in the 6 h following exercise and ingestion of the protein beverages [93].”
BackgroundWitard, O. C., Hearris, M. A., & Morgan, P. T. (2025) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-025-02203-8 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Again, the moderate dose (20–25 g) of protein ingested following concurrent exercise in these studies [12, 104, 105] may explain the failure of studies to detect an increase in mitochondrial MPS, given the recent observation that larger (30–45 g or higher) protein doses are required to stimulate…”
InfluentialTrommelen, J., van Lieshout, G. A. A., Pabla, P., Nyakayiru, J., Hendriks, F. K., Senden, J. M., Goessens, J. P. B., van Kranenburg, J. M. X., Gijsen, A. P., Verdijk, L. B., et al. (2023) · Sports Medicine · doi:10.1007/s40279-023-01822-3 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“Myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein-bound phenylalanine enrichments were determined as described previously [12].”
MethodThe Role of Mitochondrial Quality Control in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Liu, Y., Hong, J., Jiang, N., Jin, L., Zhong, W., Zhang, C.-Y., Yang, H., Duan, J., & Zhou, Y. (2023) · Laboratory Investigation · doi:10.1016/j.labinv.2023.100307 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Raw Eggs To Support Postexercise Recovery in Healthy Young Men: Did Rocky Get It Right or Wrong?
Fuchs, C. J., Hermans, W. J. H., Smeets, J. S. J., Senden, J. M., van Kranenburg, J. M. X., Gorissen, S. H. M., Burd, N. A., Verdijk, L. B., & van Loon, L. J. C. (2022) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxac174 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Smith‐Ryan, A. E., Blue, M. N. M., Anderson, K. C., Hirsch, K. R., Allen, K. D., Huebner, J. L., Muehlbauer, M. J., Ilkayeva, O., Kraus, V. B., Kraus, W. E., et al. (2020) · Osteoarthritis and Cartilage Open · doi:10.1016/j.ocarto.2020.100083 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Gaffney, K., Lucero, A. A., Macartney-Coxson, D. P., Clapham, J., Whitfield, P., Palmer, B. R., Wakefield, S., Faulkner, J., Stoner, L. R., & ROWLANDS, D. S. (2021) · Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism · doi:10.1139/apnm-2020-0943 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Hermans, W. J. H., Fuchs, C. J., Nyakayiru, J., Hendriks, F. K., Houben, L. H. P., Senden, J. M., van Loon, L. J. C., & Verdijk, L. B. (2022) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2022.10.003 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Reljic, D., Zieseniss, N., Herrmann, H. J., Neurath, M. F., & Zopf, Y. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16162713 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Ran, W., Lai, X., Zhi, Y., Zhu, Y., Zheng, H., & Wang, Y. (2025) · BMC Geriatrics · doi:10.1186/s12877-025-06546-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Tyler, et al. also found that muscle protein synthetic response is equal after milk compared to whey protein ingestion when co-ingestion with carbohydrate [25].”
van Lieshout, G. A. A., Trommelen, J., Hendriks, F. K., Nyakayiru, J., van Kranenburg, J. M. X., Senden, J. M., Goessens, J. P. B., Verdijk, L. B., Bragt, M. C. E., & van Loon, L. J. C. (2025) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.tjnut.2025.05.032 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Many, but not all studies show that protein ingestion stimulates postexercise muscle protein synthesis rates [3 – 9].”
Tracking the Fate of Milk Proteins: Better in Whole or in Part?
West, D. W. D., & Mitchell, C. J. (2020) · Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.1093/jn/nxaa161 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Some (4) but not all (5) studies suggest that whey protein has superior anabolic properties to casein due to its rapid digestion and subsequent stimulation of MPS; however, few studies have examined milk alongside its constituent protein sources (6).”
BackgroundKuo, T.-Y., Barnes, J. L., Laurson, K. R., & Russell, L. T. (2023) · Scientific Journal of Sport and Performance · doi:10.55860/xvll6808 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Application of Sport Nutrition and Sports Psychology to Recovery
Rollo, I., Williams, C., & Podlog, L. W. (2025) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-44270-4_16
- Authors
- Churchward-Venne, T. A., Pinckaers, P. J., Smeets, J. S., Peeters, W. M., Zorenc, A. H., Schierbeek, H., Rollo, I., Verdijk, L. B., & van Loon, L. J.
- Affiliations
- Maastricht University Medical Centre (NL)
- Amsterdam UMC Location University of Amsterdam (NL)
- ORCID
- Venue
- The Journal of Nutrition
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2019-02
- Volume
- 149
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 198-209
- ISSN
- 0022-3166 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC6561606
- OpenAlex
- W2912493204
- Semantic Scholar
- ad81f6534884658abe1d41f7779d1ccae0e5247a
- Cited by
- 31
- References
- 53
- Citations by year
- 2025: 4 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 7 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 1 · 2018: 1
- FWCI
- 2.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- erratum (2019-06-01)
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Nutrition (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Pure Amsterdam UMC (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Research Bank (Australian Catholic University) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Research Publications (Maastricht University) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- PepsiCo/Gatorade Sports Science Institute
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Cell Biology › Muscle metabolism and nutrition
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Muscle Physiology and Disorders
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Orthopedics and Sports Medicine › Sports Performance and Training
- Keywords
- myofibrillar protein synthesis, mitochondrial translation, whey protein, micellar casein, milk protein, post-exercise recovery, mTORC1 signaling, leucine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, muscle protein synthesis, young men, protein supplementation
- MeSH terms
- Whey, Caseins, Dietary Carbohydrates, Double-Blind Method, Humans, Male, Micelles, Milk Proteins, Mitochondria, Myofibrils, Physical Endurance, Resistance Training, Young Adult
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