Influence of race and socioeconomic status on sleep: Pittsburgh SleepSCORE project
Open accessAbstract
Objective: To examine the independent and interactive effects of race and socioeconomic status (SES) on objective indices and self-reports of sleep. Methods: The sleep of 187 adults (41% black; mean age = 59.5 ± 7.2 years) was examined. Nine nights of actigraphy and two nights of inhome polysomnography (PSG) were used to assess average sleep duration, continuity, and architecture; self-report was used to assess sleep quality. Psychosocial factors, health behaviors, and environmental factors were also measured. Results: Blacks had shorter sleep duration and lower sleep efficiency, as measured by actigraphy and PSG, and they spent less time proportionately in Stage 3–4 sleep, compared with others (p < .01). Lower SES was associated with longer actigraphy-measured latency, more wake after sleep onset as measured by PSG, and poorer sleep quality on the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (p < .05). Conclusions: Blacks and perhaps individuals in lower SES groups may be at risk for sleep disturbances and associated health consequences. SES = socioeconomic status; PSG = polysomnography; WASO = wake after sleep onset; HeartSCORE = Heart Strategies Concentrating On Risk Evaluation; PSQI = Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index; ESS = Epworth Sleepiness Scale; EOG = electro-oculogram; EMG = electromyogram; ECG = electrocardiogram; REM = rapid eye movement; AHI = apnea/hypopnea index; BMI = body mass index; CES-D = Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale; STAI = Spielberger Trait Anxiety Inventory; Ho = Cook-Medley Hostility Scale; SEI = Sleep Environment Inventory.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Blacks/African-Americans had poorer sleep efficiency than Non-Hispanic Whites.
“and had poorer sleep efficiency(217, 219) than Non-Hispanic Whites.”
From Sleep: important considerations for the prevention of cardiovascular disease (2016) · cites this paper as [217]
Blacks/African-Americans obtained less Slow Wave Sleep than Non-Hispanic Whites.
“Blacks/African-Americans also obtained less Slow Wave Sleep. Other studies have also found that Blacks/African-Americans obtained less Slow Wave Sleep(215-219)”
From Sleep: important considerations for the prevention of cardiovascular disease (2016) · cites this paper as [217]
Studies using polysomnography have generally found that lower socio-economic position is associated with poorer sleep quality.
“Although few studies have measured this relationship using sleep assessed with polysomnography, these have also have generally found that lower socio-economic position is associated with poorer sleep quality (Friedman et al., 2005; Hall et al., 2009; Mezick et al., 2008; Tomfohr et al., 2010).”
From Addressing sleep disturbances: an opportunity to prevent cardiometabolic disease? (2014) · cites this paper as Mezick et al., 2008
Studies using polysomnography consistently observed lower amounts of slow wave sleep and reduced sleep efficiency among African Americans compared to non-Hispanic whites.
“several studies that used polysomnography (PSG) consistently observed lower amounts of slow wave sleep and reduced sleep efficiency among African Americans compared to non-Hispanic whites [13–16]”
From Association between sleep deficiency and cardiometabolic disease: implications for health disparities (2016) · cites this paper as [15]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population
Radloff, L. S. (1977) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662167700100306 · Cited by 53,267 · see citing works
The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research
Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R., & Kupfer, D. J. (1989) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4 · Cited by 35,234 · see citing works
Self-citation(1970) · Cited by 24,983 · see citing works
A New Method for Measuring Daytime Sleepiness: The Epworth Sleepiness Scale
Johns, M. W. (1991) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/14.6.540 · Cited by 17,364 · see citing works
A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects
MacKinnon, D. P., Lockwood, C. M., Hoffman, J. M., West, S. G., & Sheets, V. (2002) · Psychological Methods · doi:10.1037/1082-989x.7.1.83 · Cited by 9,406 · see citing works
McNicholas, W. T., Strohl, K. P., White, D. P., Levy, P. A., Schmidt, W., Wheatley, J. R., Redline, S. S., Carley, D. W., Buysse, D. J., Young, T. B., et al. (1999) · PubMed · Cited by 3,665 · see citing works
Self-citationCarmen, D.-W., Proctor, B. D., & Smith, J. C. (2008) · University Libraries (University of Maryland) · doi:10.13016/ulfd-hsp8 · Cited by 1,569 · see citing works
Proposed hostility and Pharisaic-virtue scales for the MMPI.
Cook, W. W., & Medley, D. M. (1954) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0060667 · Cited by 1,489 · see citing works
Gallo, L. C., & Matthews, K. A. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.10 · Cited by 1,366 · see citing works
Gangwisch, J. E., Heymsfield, S. B., Boden-Albala, B., Buijs, R. M., Kreier, F., Pickering, T. G., Rundle, A. G., Zammit, G. K., & Malaspina, D. (2006) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/01.hyp.0000217362.34748.e0 · Cited by 1,284 · see citing works
Socioeconomic Status and Health: The Potential Role of Environmental Risk Exposure
Evans, G. W., & Kantrowitz, E. (2002) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.23.112001.112349 · Cited by 1,201 · see citing works
The role of sleep in learning and memory
Maquet, P. (2001) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1062856 · Cited by 1,177 · see citing works
Inadequate Sleep as a Risk Factor for Obesity: Analyses of the NHANES I
Gangwisch, J. E., Malaspina, D., Boden-Albala, B., & Heymsfield, S. B. (2005) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/28.10.1289 · Cited by 905 · see citing works
Pilcher, J. J., Ginter, D. R., & Sadowsky, B. (1997) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3999(97)00004-4 · Cited by 841 · see citing works
The effects of age, sex, ethnicity, and sleep-disordered breathing on sleep architecture
Redline, S., Kirchner, H. L., Quan, S. F., Gottlieb, D. J., Kapur, V., & Newman, A. (2004) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.164.4.406 · Cited by 732 · see citing works
Socioeconomic Status Differences in Vulnerability to Undesirable Life Events
McLeod, J. D., & Kessler, R. C. (1990) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2137170 · Cited by 672 · see citing works
Psychosocial stress and impaired sleep
Åkerstedt, T. (2006) · Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health · doi:10.5271/sjweh.1054 · Cited by 585 · see citing works
Objectively Measured Sleep Characteristics among Early-Middle-Aged Adults
Lauderdale, D. S., Knutson, K. L., Yan, L. L., Rathouz, P. J., Hulley, S. B., Sidney, S., & Liu, K. (2006) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwj199 · Cited by 581 · see citing works
Racial differences in self-reports of sleep duration in a population-based study
Hale, L., & Do, D. P. (2007) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/30.9.1096 · Cited by 523 · see citing works
High Incidence of Diabetes in Men With Sleep Complaints or Short Sleep Duration
Mallon, L., Broman, J.-E., & Hetta, J. (2005) · Diabetes Care · doi:10.2337/diacare.28.11.2762 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Habitual sleep patterns and risk for stroke and coronary heart disease
Qureshi, A. I., Giles, W. H., Croft, J. B., & Bliwise, D. L. (1997) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.48.4.904 · Cited by 335 · see citing works
Liao, D., Barnes, R. W., Chambless, L. E., Simpson, R. J., Sorlie, P. D., HEISS, G. M., & The ARIC Investigators (1995) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/s0002-9149(99)80260-4 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
Symptoms of Stress and Depression as Correlates of Sleep in Primary Insomnia
Hall, M. H., Buysse, D. J., Nowell, P. D., Nofzinger, E. A., Houck, P. R., Reynolds, C. F., & Kupfer, D. J. (2000) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-200003000-00014 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Self-citationSocioeconomic Status and Health: The Role of Sleep
Moore, P. J., Adler, N. E., Williams, D. R., & Jackson, J. S. (2002) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/00006842-200203000-00018 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
Sleep disturbance in healthy middle-aged women
Owens, J. F., & Matthews, K. A. (1998) · Maturitas · doi:10.1016/s0378-5122(98)00039-5 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Self-citationMiedema, H., & Vos, H. (2007) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1207/s15402010bsm0501_1 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Jean-Louis, G., Kripke, D. F., Ancoli-Israel, S., Klauber, M. R., & Sepulveda, R. S. (2000) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0006-3223(99)00169-9 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Socioeconomic status and insomnia
Gellis, L. A., Lichstein, K. L., Scarinci, I. C., Durrence, H. H., Taylor, D. J., Bush, A. J., & Riedel, B. W. (2005) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-843x.114.1.111 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
The Sleep of African Americans: A Comparative Review
Durrence, H. H., & Lichstein, K. L. (2006) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1207/s15402010bsm0401_3 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Health habits of U.S. adults, 1985: the "Alameda 7" revisited.
Schoenborn, C. A. (1987) · PubMed · Cited by 166 · see citing works
The toll of ethnic discrimination on sleep architecture and fatigue.
Thomas, K. S., Bardwell, W. A., Ancoli‐Israel, S., & Dimsdale, J. E. (2006) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.25.5.635 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Handbook of Racial and Ethnic Minority Psychology
Henderson, S. (2005) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.56.10.1323 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Brady, S. S. (2002) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/27.7.575 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Are there ethnic differences in sleep architecture?
Profant, J., Ancoli‐Israel, S., & Dimsdale, J. E. (2002) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.10032 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Sleep complaints of postmenopausal women
Kripke, D. F., Brunner, R. L., Freeman, R., Hendrix, S. L., Jackson, R. D., Masaki, K., & Carter, R. A. (2001) · Clinical Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1053/cjwh.2001.30491 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Rao, U., Poland, R. E., Lutchmansingh, P., Ott, G. E., McCracken, J. T., & Lin, K. (1999) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3956(99)00019-9 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Effect of Ethnicity on Sleep: Complexities for Epidemiologic Research
Stepnowsky, C. J., Moore, P., & Dimsdale, J. E. (2003) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/26.3.329 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Rodriguez, C., Sciacca, R., Diez-Roux, A., Boden-Albala, B., Sacco, R., Homma, S., & Tullio, M. D. (2004) · HYPERTENSION · doi:10.1161/01.hyp.0000118055.90533.88 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Aiyer, A., Kip, K. E., Marroquin, O. C., Mulukutla, S. R., Edmundowicz, D., & Reís, S. E. (2007) · American Heart Journal · doi:10.1016/j.ahj.2006.11.002 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
Stress, Coping, and Minority Health: Biopsychosocial Perspective on Ethnic Health Disparities
Myers, H. F., Lewis, T. T., & Parker-Dominguez, T. (2012) · Sage eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781412976008.n19 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Socioeconomic Status as a Correlate of Sleep in African‐American and Caucasian Women
Hall, M. H., Bromberger, J. T., & Matthews, K. A. (1999) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1999.tb08161.x · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Self-citationSleep in Older African Americans and Caucasians at Risk for Sleep-Disordered Breathing
Fiorentino, L., Marler, M., Stepnowsky, C. J., Johnson, S., & Ancoli‐Israel, S. (2006) · Behavioral Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1207/s15402010bsm0403_3 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Fatigue varies by social class in african americans but not caucasian americans
Bardwell, W. A., Burke, S. C., Thomas, K. S., Carter, C., Weingart, K. R., & Dimsdale, J. E. (2006) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1207/s15327558ijbm1303_9 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- [35]Rechtschaffen A, Kales A. A Manual of Standardized Terminology, Techniques and Scoring System for Sleep Stages of Human Subjects. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, Department of Health Education and Welfare; 1986. NIH Publication 204. [Google Scholar]
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Grandner, M. A. (2017) · Sleep Medicine Clinics · doi:10.1016/j.jsmc.2016.10.012 · Cited by 720 · see citing works
Environmental influences on the pace of brain development
Tooley, U. A., Bassett, D. S., & Mackey, A. P. (2021) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-021-00457-5 · Cited by 488 · see citing works
Sleep disparity, race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic position
Grandner, M. A., Williams, N. J., Knutson, K. L., Roberts, D., & Jean-Louis, G. (2016) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2015.01.020 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
Hicken, M. T., Lee, H., Ailshire, J., Burgard, S. A., & Williams, D. R. (2013) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-013-9095-9 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Normal sleep in African-Americans and Caucasian-Americans: a meta-analysis
Ruiter, M. E., DeCoster, J., Jacobs, L., & Lichstein, K. L. (2011) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2010.12.010 · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Does inadequate sleep play a role in vulnerability to obesity?
Knutson, K. L. (2012) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.22219 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
What keeps low-SES children from sleeping well: the role of presleep worries and sleep environment
Bagley, E. J., Kelly, R. J., Buckhalt, J. A., & El-Sheikh, M. (2015) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2014.10.008 · Cited by 237 · see citing works
Knutson, K. L. (2013) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.05.002 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Sleep in America: role of racial/ethnic differences
Adenekan, B., Pandey, A., McKenzie, S., Zizi, F., Casimir, G. J., & Jean-Louis, G. (2013) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2012.07.002 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Sleep: important considerations for the prevention of cardiovascular disease
Grandner, M. A., Alfonso-Miller, P., Fernandez-Mendoza, J., Shetty, S., Shenoy, S., & Combs, D. (2016) · Current Opinion in Cardiology · doi:10.1097/hco.0000000000000324 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Neighborhood of Residence is Associated with Daily Adherence to CPAP Therapy
Platt, A. B., Field, S. H., Asch, D. A., Chen, Z., Patel, N. P., Gupta, R., Roche, D. F., Gurubhagavatula, I., Christie, J. D., & Kuna, S. T. (2009) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/32.6.799 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Rangaraj, V. R., & Knutson, K. L. (2016) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2015.02.535 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Higher Income Is Associated With Less Daily Sadness but not More Daily Happiness
Kushlev, K., Dunn, E. W., & Lucas, R. E. (2015) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550614568161 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Sleep duration and ambulatory blood pressure in black and white adolescents
Mezick, E. J., Hall, M., & Matthews, K. A. (2012) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/hypertensionaha.111.184770 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationAddressing sleep disturbances: an opportunity to prevent cardiometabolic disease?
Grandner, M. A. (2014) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.3109/09540261.2014.911148 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Although few studies have measured this relationship using sleep assessed with polysomnography, these have also have generally found that lower socio-economic position is associated with poorer sleep quality (Friedman et al., 2005; Hall et al., 2009; Mezick et al., 2008; Tomfohr et al., 2010).”
BackgroundGreen, M. J., Espie, C. A., Hunt, K., & Benzeval, M. (2012) · SLEEP · doi:10.5665/sleep.1882 · Cited by 59 · see citing works
Fatima, Y., Bucks, R. S., Mamun, A. A., Skinner, I., Rosenzweig, I., Leschziner, G., & Skinner, T. C. (2020) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2020.10.020 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Gellis, L. A., & Gehrman, P. R. (2011) · Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2011.613448 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-reported long sleep in older adults is closely related to objective time in bed
KLINE, C. E., ZIELINSKI, M. R., DEVLIN, T. M., KRIPKE, D. F., BOGAN, R. K., & YOUNGSTEDT, S. D. (2010) · Sleep and Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1111/j.1479-8425.2009.00422.x · Cited by 35 · see citing works
Predictors of slow-wave sleep in a clinic-based sample
MOKHLESI, B., PANNAIN, S., GHODS, F., & KNUTSON, K. L. (2012) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2869.2011.00959.x · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Predictors of sleep-disordered breathing in obese adults who are chronic short sleepers
Knutson, K. L., Zhao, X., Mattingly, M., Galli, G., & Cizza, G. (2012) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2011.11.009 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
- Authors
- Mezick, E. J., Matthews, K. A., Hall, M., Strollo, P. J., Buysse, D. J., Kamarck, T. W., Owens, J. F., & Reis, S. E.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- Corresponding author
- Matthews, Karen A.
- Venue
- Psychosomatic Medicine
- Published
- 2008-05
- Volume
- 70
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 410-416
- ISSN
- 0033-3174 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC2887747
- OpenAlex
- W2011681781
- Cited by
- 321
- References
- 44
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 19 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 19 · 2020: 26 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 16 · 2017: 18 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 16.36
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Psychosomatic Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (HL076369, P50HL065112, #HL07560, HL 065112, HL 065111, R01HL076379, P50HL065111, T32HL007560)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Obstructive Sleep Apnea Research
- Keywords
- race, socioeconomic status, sleep, Black people, sleep duration, sleep efficiency, sleep architecture, wake after sleep onset, sleep quality, sleep disorders, sleep latency, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, actigraphy, polysomnography
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Attitude to Health, Female, Humans, Disorders of Excessive Somnolence, Sleep Initiation and Maintenance Disorders, Male, Middle Aged, Risk Factors, Sleep Stages, Social Environment, Socioeconomic Factors, Cohort Studies, Health Behavior, Polysomnography, Black People, White People
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
