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The neural basis of metacognitive ability
Open accessAbstract
Ability in various cognitive domains is often assessed by measuring task performance, such as the accuracy of a perceptual categorization. A similar analysis can be applied to metacognitive reports about a task to quantify the degree to which an individual is aware of his or her success or failure. Here, we review the psychological and neural underpinnings of metacognitive accuracy, drawing on research in memory and decision-making. These data show that metacognitive accuracy is dissociable from task performance and varies across individuals. Convergent evidence indicates that the function of the rostral and dorsal aspect of the lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) is important for the accuracy of retrospective judgements of performance. In contrast, prospective judgements of performance may depend upon medial PFC. We close with a discussion of how metacognitive processes relate to concepts of cognitive control, and propose a neural synthesis in which dorsolateral and anterior prefrontal cortical subregions interact with interoceptive cortices (cingulate and insula) to promote accurate judgements of performance.
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![Figure 1. (a) A schematic adapted from Shimamura [16] showing how the levels of Nelson and Narens' cognitive psychology model of metacognition can be naturally mapped onto a hierarchical brain structure. (b) The left panel shows a first-order process, such as a simple visual discrimination, that may occur in the absence of metacognitive report. The right panel shows the same discrimination, this time with the information available for a second-order commentary about the decision.](/paper-figures/20555fe269b642c79b10db899e8b7298/the-neural-basis-of-metacognitive-ability-figure-1.jpg)
![Figure 3. Data from a visual decision task demonstrating a dissociation of metacognitive accuracy from task performance. Subjects made a visual decision (either an orientation or contrast judgement) and then provided a retrospective confidence rating. A measure of metacognitive accuracy was derived from these ratings by calculating the area under the type 2 ROC function. Performance on the orientation judgement task did not predict task performance on the contrast judgement task (a). However, metacognitive accuracy was strongly correlated between tasks (b), suggesting that it is both independent of task performance and stable within individuals. Reproduced with permission from Song et al. [70].](/paper-figures/1553ce11012c4fff806c95c4a8f5c0db/the-neural-basis-of-metacognitive-ability-figure-3.jpg)
![Figure 4. Convergent evidence for a role of rostrolateral PFC in metacognitive accuracy. (a) Across individuals, grey matter volume in rlPFC was found to positively correlate (hot colours) with metacognitive accuracy (type 2 ROC area) after controlling for differences in task performance [21]. (b) In a complementary study, BOLD signal in right posterior-lateral BA10 was positively correlated with metacognitive accuracy (gamma) but not differences in task performance [96]. (c) The necessity of lateral PFC for metacognitive accuracy was confirmed by combining TMS with SDT: following repetitive TMS to bilateral dlPFC, subjects exhibited reduced meta-d′ (the type 2 d′ expected from a given level of type 1 sensitivity) despite intact task performance [20]. Panels reproduced with permission from [21,96,20].](/paper-figures/c10a770254a843a6b56f3fe4e3e2b0c5/the-neural-basis-of-metacognitive-ability-figure-4.jpg)
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“Weil et al. (2013) showed that metacognitive efficiency increases during adolescence, consistent with the maturation of prefrontal regions thought to underpin metacognition (Fleming and Dolan, 2012).”
From How to measure metacognition (2014) · cites this paper as Fleming and Dolan, 2012
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“As noted above, this capacity to detect the “background” or lived subjective context of one’s object-focused experience contrasts with an “inward turn” of attention, often characterized as “introspection,” or retrospective second-order judgment (Fleming & Dolan, 2012; Overgaard & Sandberg, 2012).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Fleming, S. M., & Dolan, R. J.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Fleming, Stephen M.
- Venue
- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
- Publisher
- The Royal Society
- Published
- 2012-05-19
- Volume
- 367
- Issue
- 1594
- Pages
- 1338-1349
- ISSN
- 0962-8436 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-2970
- PMC
- PMC3318765
- OpenAlex
- W2155610381
- Semantic Scholar
- 6067b80d698ec3f84bd5329f7154f302e0cde788
- Cited by
- 747
- References
- 153
- Citations by year
- 2026: 71 · 2025: 69 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 64 · 2020: 66 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 49 · 2017: 55 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 30 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 22 · 2012: 9
- FWCI
- 2.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Max Planck Digital Library (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (091593, 078865/Z/05/Z)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- metacognition, metacognitive accuracy, lateral prefrontal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, interoception, cognitive control, memory, decision-making, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Cognition, Decision Making, Humans, Memory, Neural Pathways, Prefrontal Cortex
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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