‘Bodily precision’: A predictive coding account of individual differences in interoceptive accuracy
Open accessAbstract
Individuals differ in their awareness of afferent information from within their bodies, which is typically assessed by a heartbeat perception measure of ‘interoceptive accuracy’ (IAcc). Neural and behavioural correlates of this trait have been investigated, but a theoretical explanation has yet to be presented. Building on recent models that describe interoception within the free energy/predictive coding framework, this paper applies similar principles to IAcc, proposing that individual differences in IAcc depend on ‘precision’ in interoceptive systems, i.e. the relative weight accorded to ‘prior’ representations and ‘prediction errors’ (that part of incoming interoceptive sensation not accounted for by priors), at various levels within the cortical hierarchy and between modalities. Attention has the effect of optimizing precision both within and between sensory modalities. Our central assumption is that people with high IAcc are able, with attention, to prioritize interoception over other sensory modalities and can thus adjust the relative precision of their interoceptive priors and prediction errors, where appropriate, given their personal history. This characterization explains key findings within the interoception literature; links results previously seen as unrelated or contradictory; and may have important implications for understanding cognitive, behavioural and psychopathological consequences of both high and low interoceptive awareness. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Interoception beyond homeostasis: affect, cognition and mental health’.
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Central signalling of inflammation engages established interoceptive pathways to insula, but can also engage a distinct subcortical response that might better predict development of affective psychopathology.
“Interestingly, central signalling of inflammation engages established interoceptive pathways to insula, but can also engage a distinct subcortical response that might better predict development of affective psychopathology [34].”
From Interoception and emotion. (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
The Introduction (page unavailable) describes the anterior insula as part of an interoceptive pathway. It does not establish that inflammatory signalling engages that pathway, or describe a distinct subcortical response that predicts affective psychopathology; searches for inflammation and subcortical responses found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredInteroceptive mechanisms influence adaptive and maladaptive motivational decisions and have implications for preventing and managing clinical disorders.
“Detailed understanding of these mechanisms is important given their influence on adaptive [16] and maladaptive [51 ] motivational decisions and their implications for preventing and managing clinical disorders [19 ,20 ,21 ,34,41, 42,46,50 ].”
From Interoception and emotion. (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
The ‘Neuroeconomic decision-making and motivation’ section links interoceptive accuracy to risk and effort choices. Section 6, ‘Interoceptive accuracy in clinical disorders,’ discusses a possible role in disorders’ aetiology and remediation. The paper does not explicitly distinguish adaptive from maladaptive motivational decisions or address prevention of clinical disorders. (LLM, conf=0.83)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPredictive coding models of interoception have explanatory power for observations on emotion, extending to self-representation, and for structural and functional organizational features of the brain, notably insular cortex and its relationship to visceromotor centres.
“Predictive coding models of interoception have explanatory power, both for observations on emotion, extending to self-representation and, interestingly, in accounting for both structural and functional organizational features of the brain, notably insular cortex and its relationship to visceromotor centres [3,48,39,49,43,44,45 ,46,50 ].”
From Interoception and emotion. (2017) · cites this paper as [48]
Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPrior preferences about essential variables encode probability distributions over states, and their sufficient statistics are free to vary and can be toggled according to context.
“Prior preferences about essential variables encode probability distributions over states (rather than a single ideal setpoint), and the sufficient statistics that specify this setpoint (mean and precision) are free to vary and can be toggled according to the context (Ainley et al. 2016).”
From Consciousness in active inference: Deep self-models, other minds, and the challenge of psychedelic-induced ego-dissolution (2021) · cites this paper as Ainley et al. 2016
Section 2 represents priors as probabilistic beliefs specified by expectations and precisions, and says their weighting takes context into account. Section 3 says attention continually fine-tunes prior precision, while Section 2 gives body temperature as an example of an updated prior. The paper does not explicitly frame these priors as preferences about essential variables or contrast them with a single ideal setpoint. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPredictions of the future are continually generated within the brain based on previous life experiences, as an array of parallel predictive simulations that come with a certain probability.
“First, predictions of the future are continually generated within the brain: based on previous life experiences, an array of parallel predictive simulations are computed that all come with a certain probability. 96,[101][102]2][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112]”
From A new science of emotion: implications for functional neurological disorder (2022) · cites this paper as [104]
The Introduction (page not provided) describes probabilistic predictions in the brain’s generative models, informed by sensory evidence. Section 2 (page not provided) says predictions and their precision are updated. The paper does not describe an array of parallel simulations of possible futures based on previous life experiences. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Functional and structural alterations of the insula might lead to imprecise predictive interoceptive signal modelling and error detection, contributing to inefficiencies in performing allostasis.
“Functional and structural alterations of the insula (found in several FND neuroimaging studies) might lead to imprecise predictive interoceptive signal modelling and error detection, contributing to inefficiencies in performing allostasis.95,104,112,135”
From A new science of emotion: implications for functional neurological disorder (2022) · cites this paper as [104]
The Introduction identifies the insula as a principal region in interoceptive processing, where predictions and prediction errors are reconciled. The clinical-disorders section links functional disorders to atypical precision in interoceptive processing. Neither section says that structural or functional alterations of the insula cause those problems or impair allostasis; a search for “allostasis” found it only in a reference title. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredBoth acute and chronic states of inflammation influence emotion through coordinated motivational changes conceptualised as sickness behaviours, including fatigue, anhedonia, social withdrawal and irritability, symptoms shared with depression.
“Both acute and chronic states of inflammation influence emotion through a coordinated set of motivational changes conceptualised as 'sickness behaviours'.”
From Interoception and emotion. (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 0 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 2 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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Interoception and Social Connection
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Allostasis as a core feature of hierarchical gradients in the human brain
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Affective regulation through touch: homeostatic and allostatic mechanisms
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Interoceptive technologies for psychiatric interventions: From diagnosis to clinical applications
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Expectancies and avoidance: Towards an integrated model of chronic somatic symptoms
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On the minimal theory of consciousness implicit in active inference
Whyte, C. J., Corcoran, A. W., Robinson, J., Smith, R., Moran, R. J., Parr, T., Friston, K. J., Seth, A. K., & Hohwy, J. (2026) · Physics of Life Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.plrev.2025.11.002 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
- Authors
- Ainley, V., Apps, M. A. J., Fotopoulou, A., & Tsakiris, M.
- Affiliations
- Royal Holloway University of London (GB)
- University of Oxford (GB)
- University College London (GB)
- Laboratory of Action and Body, Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway, University of London, Egham TW20 0EX, UK
- Corresponding author
- Ainley, Vivien
- Venue
- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
- Publisher
- The Royal Society
- Published
- 2016-11-19
- Volume
- 371
- Issue
- 1708
- Pages
- 20160003
- ISSN
- 0962-8436 (ISSN-L)
- 1471-2970
- PMC
- PMC5062093
- OpenAlex
- W2531760904
- Cited by
- 285
- References
- 72
- Citations by year
- 2026: 38 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 37 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 22 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 14 · 2016: 4
- FWCI
- 14.51
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- University of Birmingham Research Portal (University of Birmingham) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- European Research Council (ERC-2010-StG-262853, ERC-2012-STG GA313755)
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/M013596/1)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine › Heart Rate Variability and Autonomic Control
- Keywords
- interoceptive accuracy, interoception, predictive coding, free energy principle, prediction error, attention, individual differences, heartbeat perception, cortical hierarchy
- MeSH terms
- Awareness, Humans, Individuality, Models, Neurological, Interoception
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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