Functions of interoception: From energy regulation to experience of the self
Open accessAbstract
We review recent work on functions of interoceptive processing, by which the nervous system anticipates, senses, and integrates signals originating from the body. We focus on several exemplar functions of interoception, including energy regulation (ingestion and excretion), memory, affective and emotional experience, and the psychological sense of self. We emphasize two themes across these functions. First, the anatomy of interoceptive afferents makes it difficult to manipulate or directly measure interoceptive signaling in humans. Second, recent evidence shows that multimodal integration occurs across interoceptive modalities, and between interoceptive and exteroceptive modalities. Whereas exteroceptive multimodal integration has been relatively extensively studied, fundamental questions remain regarding multimodal integration that involves interoceptive modalities, and future empirical work is required to better understand how and where multimodal interoceptive integration occurs.
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The measurement of interoception is generally acknowledged to be the biggest difficulty within the field.
“The measurement of interoception is generally acknowledged to be the biggest difficulty within the field (for a review, see Quigley et al., 2021).”
From Atypical interoception as a common risk factor for psychopathology: A review (2021) · cites this paper as Quigley et al., 2021
The Multiple Functions of Interoception and Concluding Remarks identify measuring interoceptive signaling in humans as a significant difficulty. They do not say that measurement is generally acknowledged to be the field’s biggest difficulty. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDistinct interoceptive signals are likely processed independently, and multiple signals across domains are integrated to create a representation of the body's internal state as a whole.
“it is likely that distinct interoceptive signals are processed independently, and multiple signals across domains are integrated to create a representation of the body’s internal state as a whole (Quigley et al., 2021).”
From Atypical interoception as a common risk factor for psychopathology: A review (2021) · cites this paper as Quigley et al., 2021
In “The Multiple Functions of Interoception” (page unavailable), the paper describes integration across diverse interoceptive inputs and an overall representation of the body's state. It does not say that distinct interoceptive signals are likely processed independently, so that part of the attributed claim is unsupported. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe insular cortex is often termed a 'hub' for interoception, receiving afferent bodily information and contributing to efferent autonomic control.
“Within the brain, the insular cortex is often termed a ‘hub’ for interoception20,45,46, receiving afferent bodily information and contributing to efferent autonomic control47.”
From Beyond bendy joints: number of variant connective tissue features predicts neurodivergent characteristics in hypermobile individuals with anxiety (2026) · cites this paper as [47]
In ‘Interoception and the Psychological Sense of Self’ (page unavailable), the review describes a neuroanatomical and functional focus on the insula, supporting its importance to interoception. It does not call the insula a ‘hub’ or say that it is often termed one. The sentence cites a different source for the afferent and efferent functions, so those are not assessed here. (LLM, conf=0.78)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe process of interoception is mostly outside of awareness, but provides a low-dimensional moment-to-moment characterization of the state of the body that is experienced as affect.
“The process of interoception is mostly outside of awareness, but provides a low-dimensional moment-to-moment characterization of the state of the body that is experienced by the individual as affect.95”
From A new science of emotion: implications for functional neurological disorder (2022) · cites this paper as [95]
In “Interoception and the Psychological Sense of Self” (page unavailable), the paper says interoceptive signals are typically in the background of awareness. In “Affective and emotional experience” (page unavailable), it describes affect as lower-dimensional and discusses a continually updated model of bodily state, but treats interoception’s specific role in affect as proposed and experimentally unresolved, rather than establishing that this bodily characterization is experienced as affect. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredFunctional and structural alterations of the insula might lead to imprecise predictive interoceptive signal modelling and error detection, contributing to inefficiencies in performing allostasis.
“Functional and structural alterations of the insula (found in several FND neuroimaging studies) might lead to imprecise predictive interoceptive signal modelling and error detection, contributing to inefficiencies in performing allostasis.95,104,112,135”
From A new science of emotion: implications for functional neurological disorder (2022) · cites this paper as [95]
The ‘Affective and emotional experience’ section describes an internal model of bodily status updated by interoceptive prediction errors, with predicted sensory data used to maintain allostasis. ‘Allostasis and Homeostasis’ also says imprecise predictive regulation requires error correction. The paper discusses the insula in relation to interoception, but does not say that functional or structural alterations of the insula impair prediction-error detection or make allostasis inefficient; the parenthetical FND finding is attributed to other studies. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Interoception plays a role in a wide range of psychological functions.
“Interoception plays a role in a wide range of psychological functions (Quigley et al., 2021).”
From Atypical interoception as a common risk factor for psychopathology: A review (2021) · cites this paper as Quigley et al., 2021
Allostasis is concerned with metabolic efficiency instead of bringing a system back to a set point.
“Distinct from homeostasis, allostasis is concerned with metabolic efficiency instead of bringing a system back to a set point (or various set-points).”
From A new science of emotion: implications for functional neurological disorder (2022) · cites this paper as [95]
The interoceptive model works in the service of allostasis.
“Therefore, the interoceptive model works in the service of allostasis.95,112”
From A new science of emotion: implications for functional neurological disorder (2022) · cites this paper as [95]
To perform allostasis efficiently, the system needs to anticipate, sense and integrate signals originating from within the body made available by interoception.
“To perform allostasis efficiently, the system needs to anticipate, sense and integrate signals originating from within the body made available by interoception: the brain's moment-to-moment modelling of the internal physiological state of the body.95,112,[116][117][118]”
From A new science of emotion: implications for functional neurological disorder (2022) · cites this paper as [95]
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Inflammatory and immunomodulatory mechanisms in the carotid body
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“Within the brain, the insular cortex is often termed a ‘ hub ’ for interoception 20,45,46 , receiving afferent bodily information and contributing to efferent autonomic control 47 .”
- Authors
- Quigley, K. S., Kanoski, S., Grill, W. M., Barrett, L. F., & Tsakiris, M.
- Affiliations
- Northeastern University (US)
- University of Southern California (US)
- Duke University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Quigley, Karen S.
- Venue
- Trends in Neurosciences
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 44
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 29-38
- ISSN
- 0166-2236 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7780233
- OpenAlex
- W3116868740
- Semantic Scholar
- 1973ff27f4b7ab1010bc16657220e10767eb013a
- Cited by
- 286
- References
- 118
- Citations by year
- 2026: 48 · 2025: 51 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 67 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 16 · 2020: 5
- FWCI
- 5.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Trends in Neurosciences (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Multisensory perception and integration
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Tactile and Sensory Interactions
- Keywords
- interoception, energy regulation, ingestion, excretion, memory, emotional experience, selfhood, multimodal integration
- MeSH terms
- Emotions, Humans, Interoception
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