Interoceptive technologies for psychiatric interventions: From diagnosis to clinical applications
Open accessAbstract
Interoception-the perception of internal bodily signals-has emerged as an area of interest due to its implications in emotion and the prevalence of dysfunctional interoceptive processes across psychopathological conditions. Despite the importance of interoception in cognitive neuroscience and psychiatry, its experimental manipulation remains technically challenging. This is due to the invasive nature of existing methods, the limitation of self-report and unimodal measures of interoception, and the absence of standardized approaches across disparate fields. This article integrates diverse research efforts from psychology, physiology, psychiatry, and engineering to address this oversight. Following a general introduction to the neurophysiology of interoception as hierarchical predictive processing, we review the existing paradigms for manipulating interoception (e.g., interoceptive modulation), their underlying mechanisms (e.g., interoceptive conditioning), and clinical applications (e.g., interoceptive exposure). We suggest a classification for interoceptive technologies and discuss their potential for diagnosing and treating mental health disorders. Despite promising results, considerable work is still needed to develop standardized, validated measures of interoceptive function across domains and before these technologies can translate safely and effectively to clinical settings.
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Interoceptive exposure therapy has demonstrated efficacy in reducing anxiety symptoms and increasing tolerance of interoceptive signals.
“Interoceptive exposure therapy, involving systematic exposure to distressing bodily sensations (e.g., chemoreceptive CO2 tasks, respiratory or cardiovascular disruptions), has demonstrated efficacy in reducing anxiety symptoms and increasing tolerance of interoceptive signals [62].”
From Neural correlates of altered interoception in depressive and anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2026) · cites this paper as [62]
Section 4.2.1 says interoceptive exposure can diminish fear and anxiety responses and help people tolerate distressing bodily sensations. Section 4.2.3 says evidence suggests it is effective for panic disorder. The paper does not establish the claimed increase in tolerance as a demonstrated outcome, and its efficacy language is more qualified than the citing sentence’s. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
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A Primer on Interoception and its Importance in Psychiatry
Nayok, S. B., Sreeraj, V. S., Shivakumar, V., & Venkatasubramanian, G. (2023) · Clinical Psychopharmacology and Neuroscience · doi:10.9758/cpn.2023.21.2.252 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
de Rooij, A., Corr, P. J., & Jones, S. (2017) · Creativity and Cognition · doi:10.1145/3059454.3059469 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Evidence for a Forward Dynamics Model in Human Adaptive Motor Control
Bhushan, N., & Shadmehr, R. (1998) · neural information processing systems · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Respiration Entrainment in Virtual Reality by Using a Breathing Avatar
Czub, M., & Kowal, M. (2019) · Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2018.0700 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Makkar, S., & Grisham, J. (2013) · The Behavior Therapist · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2012.07.005 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
The effects of false feedback on attributed arousal and rated attractiveness in female subjects1
Woll, S. B., & McFall, M. (1979) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1979.tb00200.x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Kim, S., Gäbel, C., Aguilar‐Raab, C., Hillecke, T. K., & Warth, M. (2018) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2018.06.002 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Aesthetic chills cause an emotional drift in valence and arousal
Jain, A., Schoeller, F., Horowitz, A. H., Yan, G., Hu, X., Salomon, R., & Maes, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.1013117 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Self-citation
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Bevins, R.A., Murray, J.E., 2011. Internal stimuli generated by abused substances: role of Pavlovian conditioning and its implications for drug addiction. In: Schachtman, T.R., Reilly, S. (Eds.), Associative Learning and Conditioning: Human and Non-Human Applications. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
- Opdensteinen, K. et al., Pain, in press for publication.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Metaverse in Mental Health: The Beginning of a Long History
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Self-citationLevin, M. (2025) · BioEssays · doi:10.1002/bies.202400196 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
There is no such thing as interoception
Schoeller, F., Zhang, B., Garcia, T., & Reggente, N. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1488415 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Self-citationCommon threads: Altered interoceptive processes across affective and anxiety disorders
Saltafossi, M., Heck, D. H., Kluger, D. S., & Varga, S. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.09.135 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Enhancing Agency in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Therapies Through Sensorimotor Technologies
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Self-citationPain in Tourette Syndrome: A Comprehensive Review
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GABAB Receptor: Structure, Biological Functions, and Therapy for Diseases
Xie, W., Li, Y., Wang, X., Blokhina, E. A., Krupitsky, E. M., Vetrova, M., Hu, J., Yuan, T., Chen, J., Wang, H., et al. (2025) · MedComm · doi:10.1002/mco2.70163 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Respiration Facilitates Behavior During Multisensory Integration
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Neuroimaging and neuromodulation of invisible symptoms in multiple sclerosis
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Self-citationBarca, L. (2025) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare13161960 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Self-citationInteroception and Mental Health
Khalsa, S. S., & Verdonk, C. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-68521-7_9 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationEditorial “Embodiment in the Metaverse: How Real and Virtual Bodies in Interaction Affect Cognition”
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Xu, E., Pitts, S., Dahill-Fuchel, J. F., Scherrer, S., Nauvel, T., Overton, J. A., Riva‐Posse, P., Crowell, A. L., Figee, M., Alagapan, S., et al. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.11.021 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Levin, M. G. (2024) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/yq9xe · Cited by 5 · see citing works
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Self-citationBao, L., Rao, J., Yu, D., Zheng, B., & Yin, B. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105537 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Autobiographical Memory in Feeding and Eating Disorders: A Systematic Review
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Self-citationPsychiatry and sensation: the epigenetic links
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“Interoceptive exposure therapy, involving systematic exposure to distressing bodily sensations (e.g., chemoreceptive CO 2 tasks, respiratory or cardiovascular disruptions), has demonstrated efficacy in reducing anxiety symptoms and increasing tolerance of interoceptive signals [62].”
Beyond Chronic Pain Exploring Body-Brain Interaction to Understand and Treat Chronic Pain Conditions
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Self-citationAuricular neuromodulation may act through interoception modulation
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Repeated exposure decreases aesthetic chills likelihood but increases intensity
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Self-citationAutobiographical memory in feeding and eating disorders: a systematic reviewPreprint
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Touch-Stim: Interoceptive Technologies for the Treatment of Chronic Osteoarthritis Pain
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Interoceptive NeuroEmpowerment Scale: a trauma-informed measure of adaptive state ownership
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The role of interoception in alexithymia: a multidimensional analysis
Li, W., Ji, L., Liu, Y., & Li, L. (2026) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-026-04598-z
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Wang, Z., 谭支内, Zhang, Y., Li, Y., Lin, J., Xu, Y., Li, Y., & Chen, T. (2026) · Acta Neurologica Belgica · doi:10.1007/s13760-026-03168-9
Katrieli, O., Silvert, J., Haviv, Y., & Gilam, G. (2026) · European Journal of Pain · doi:10.1002/ejp.70387
- Authors
- Schoeller, F., Horowitz, A. H., Jain, A., Maes, P., Reggente, N., Christov-Moore, L., Pezzulo, G., Barca, L., Allen, M., Salomon, R., Miller, M., Di Lernia, D., Riva, G., Tsakiris, M., Chalah, M. A., Klein, A., Zhang, B., Garcia, T., Pollack, U., Trousselard, M., Verdonk, C., Dumas, G., Adrien, V., & Friston, K.
- Affiliations
- Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center (US)
- MIT Media Lab (US)
- National Research Council (IT)
- Aarhus University (DK)
- University of Haifa (IL)
- Hokkaido University (JP)
- Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore (IT)
- Université Paris-Est Créteil (FR)
- Child Mind Institute (US)
- Université de Montréal (CA)
- Sorbonne Université (FR)
- UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology (GB)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2024-01
- Volume
- 156
- Pages
- 105478
- ISSN
- 0149-7634 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4388948727
- Cited by
- 42
- References
- 223
- Citations by year
- 2026: 9 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 21 · 2023: 1
- FWCI
- 1.92
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hal.science
- Licence
- Locations
- Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- HAL (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Archivio Istituzionale della Ricerca (Universita Degli Studi Di Milano) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- IRIS eCampus Telematic University (Università degli Studi eCampus) (submittedVersion)
- Scopus (Elsevier) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research
- European Commission (HORIZON2020, 945539)
- Lundbeckfonden (R272‐2017‐4345)
- Horizon 2020 Framework Programme (ERC-2016-COG, R272-2017-4345, #945539, 820213)
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (dgecr-2023-00089)
- H2020 European Research Council (820213, 948788, 724537)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Psychosomatic Disorders and Their Treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Keywords
- interoception, interoceptive conditioning, interoceptive exposure, predictive processing, mental illness, psychiatric diagnosis, emotion regulation
- MeSH terms
- Cognitive Neuroscience, Awareness, Mental Disorders, Emotions, Heart Rate, Humans, Self Report, Interoception
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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